Classification of Marriage

Polygyny:
It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of two types , they are
Sororal polygyny and non sororal
polygyny

Sororal polygyny:
It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate.

Non-sororal polygyny:
It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related assisters.

Polyandry
It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less
common than polygyny.
It is of two types. Fraternal Polyandry and.   non fraternal polyandry.

Fraternal polyandry:
When several brothers share the
same wife the practice can be called. alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers, called levirate. It is prevalent
among Todas. Dropodi  in Mohavarat marry five pundovs brother at the same time.

Non - fraternal polyandry:
In this type the husband need not
have any close relationship prior to. the marriage. The wife goes to spendsome time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands the others have no claim over her.

Monogamy:
It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and acceptable form of marriage.

Serial monogamy:
In many societies individuals are
permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time.

Straight monogamy:
In this remarriage is not allowed.

Group Marriage:
It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Herethe husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole. now a days group marriage and group sex without marriage is increased .

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What is the Difference Between Psychology and Sociology

Many students considering a major in the social sciences question what the main differences are between psychology and sociology because they seem so similar. In some ways, these two fields go hand in hand for uncovering the scientific truth about humans. Both have the overall objective of helping people better understand the complex dynamics of mental processes, emotions, behaviors, and social relationships. However, there are several unique nuances to each of these human-focused fields that should be noted. Below we’ll take an in-depth look at the significant differences that separate psychology from sociology in the social science arena.

All About Psychology

The distinguishing feature of psychology is that it involves the study of the human mind in regards to the individual or small group rather than society as a whole. Psychology usually focuses on studying one person at a time to craft general principles that can be applied towards understanding mental health trends, human behaviors, or societal problems. Psychologists are concerned with conducting research on specific cognitive processes, such as stress, grief, anger, depression, intelligence, and love. Most studies in psychology involve evaluating each person’s brain functions without necessarily considering the impact on other people. Psychologists seek to discover the reasoning behind emotional reactions in order to piece together sections of larger psychological puzzles for boosting individual well-being.

Sociology Defined

On the other hand, sociology looks beyond individual beings to examine society as a whole through specific social associations. Sociologists focus on learning about societal behavior by understanding how gender, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, and appearance can play a prominent role in overall culture. Sociology seeks to bring social problems like economic injustice, marriage inequality, social stratification, hate crimes, alcohol addiction, obesity, environmental racism, and healthcare disparity to the public eye. Instead of dwelling on individual human thought, sociology inherently deals with how people relate with one another and behave towards others. Sociologists observe certain populations, research current issues, and evaluate how the problems will affect the wellness of society.

Choosing the Right Career Fit

Though these fields overlap in their studies about human behavior, they are very different in their foci and attract different types of professionals. If you’re interested in researching the ways societies develop and organize at the macro level, then earning a degree in sociology could be the best choice. If you want to specialize in helping individuals on a micro level by studying specific mental and behavioral reactions, then psychology could be the better educational path. For students unsure, it’s often advised that you take a course in social psychology, which is quite similar to sociology in studying how society affects the thoughts of individual people.
Ultimately, there are numerous ways that sociology and psychology relate to and enhance each other to help us understand why humans behave and interact as they do. Earning an undergraduate degree in either of these social sciences will prepare you with a variety of interpersonal skills that can be transferred to careers in human services, social work, research, healthcare, and business. Psychology and sociology simply take two different approaches to figuring out what makes human beings tick, so majoring in either one could be perfect for anyone passionate about working with others.

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Notes on Family

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Rules of Marriage

No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.

Endogamy:

It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group etc.We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste groups.

Exogamy:

It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.

Forms of exogamy:

Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own gotra.

Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry among themselves.

Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes like Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the practice of marrying outside their village.

Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the same panda or sapinda( common parentage) cannot marry within themselves.

Isogamy: It is the marriage between two equals (status)

Anisogamy: It is an asymmetric marriage alliance between two individuals belonging to different social statuses. It is of two forms - Hypergamy and Hypogamy.

Hypergamy: It is the marriage of a woman with a man of higher Varna or superior caste or family.

Hypogamy: It is the marriage of high caste man with a low caste woman.

Orthogamy: It is the marriage between selected groups.

Cerogamy: It is two or more men get married to two or more women.

Anuloma marriage: It is a marriage under which a man can marry from his own caste or from those below, but a woman can marry only in her caste or above.

Pratiloma marriage: It is a marriage of a woman to a man from a lower caste which is not permitted.

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Notes on Marriage

Marriage Family and Kinship

Marriage is an institution that admits men and women to family life. Edward Westermarck defined marriage as the more or less durable connection between male and female lasting beyond the mere act of propagation till after the birth of offspring. Lowie defined it as a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. Malinowski defined marriage as a contract for the production and maintenance of children. According to Lundberg Marriage consists of the rules and regulations that define the rights, duties and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other. According to Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family. According to Anderson and Parker marriage are the sanctioning by a society of a durable bond between one or more males and one or more females established to permit sexual intercourse for the implied purpose of parenthood. According to John Levy and Ruth Monroe people get married because of the feeling that being in a family is the only proper indeed the only possible way to live. People do not marry because it is their social duty to perpetuate the institution of family or because the scriptures recommend matrimony but because they lived in a family as children and cannot get over the feeling that being in a family is the only proper way to live in society.

Types of Marriages

Marriages are of different types across the world. Types of weddings are not to be confused with types of marriages, as weddings can of be of different types as per the community even if the type of marriage is Monogamous. Forms of marriage are also culturally driven and different types of marriages in the world are prevelant among varient societies. The types of marriages in sociology are as listed and explained below. 

Polygyny

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of two types --- Sororal polygyny and non sororal polygyny 

Sororal polygyny

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate. 

Non-sororal polygyny

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters. 

Polyandry

It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than polygyny. It is of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry. 

Fraternal polyandry

When several brothers share the same wife the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is called levirate. It is prevalent among Todas. 

Non - fraternal polyandry

In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands; the others have no claim over her.

Monogamy

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and acceptable form of marriage. 

Serial monogamy

In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time. 

Straight monogamy:

In this remarriage is not allowed. 

Group Marriage:

It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole.

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Social Stratification

Social stratification is the divisions of a population into two or more layers ,each of which is relatively homogeneous and between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions, rewareles and obligations, stratification involves rank differention and constitutes an order of ranking on the basis of relative position within the ratin__ system operating in society.

Determinats of social stratification:

Some societies occupation, income and health, education are considered in other societies, ownership of landed property , ancestry, and family name may be most important; in still oters education,caste, creed and power or influence with authorities may rank high as social value.

Despit the variation , esteem , disapproval arecommon in societies there is some determinants or factors of status as follwing in Bangladesh:-

1.Wealth:----in some form as recognised by society--measured in quantity or assessed in quality. living standards displayed and the source of wealth is also significant.

2.Ancestry:--referring to the family reputation,length of residence in the area, legitimacy or illegitimacy, racial or ethnic background and nationality.

3.Functional utility of the individual:---- his  occupation as executive, teacher, scientist,unskilled labourer, skilled craftsman.

4.Religion:---the kind and degree of religion professed and practiced.All societies include some attitude towards the supernatural expressed in the form of a religion with sets of beliefs and rituals,

5.Biological characteristics:---including both age and sex. Adulthood is valued more than infancy and childhood in most of the societies ,and males are accorded higher status than females in many societies. Closely related to both age and sex is physical beauty according to standards defined by the society.

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Social institution

several definitions of institutions have been formulated by sociologigsts and rural sociologists:

"An institution is an organised system of social relationships which embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of society". [Horton, 1964, p. 206]

"Social institutions are formal cultural structures devised to meet basic social needs". [Landis, 1955, p. 555]

"An institution is a relatively permanent structure of social patterns of roles and relations that people enact in certain sanctioned and unified ways for the purpose of satisfying basic social needs". [Fitcher, 1964, p. 248]

Composition and function of institution:

Institutions may vary in their purpose and in other ways but also exhibit strong similarities.The following lists such common aspects in the composition and function of institutions:

1.       Institutions consist of material cultural objects, specified patterns of behaviour, a set of attitudes, roles and expectations .Cultural objects of a materials natures that are a part of institutions include symbols such as the flag of a nation.

2.       Institutions must prepare their members for effective participation.The marriage ceremony involves the reception of marriage vows.

3.       Institutions function in achieving for people realisation of some of their basic needs, such as child rearing in the family institution; or securing of food , shelter and clothing in economic institutions.

4.       Institutions have a dual structure .One structure consists of the set of norms of expections,rules and procedures.The second , of individuals or personal -the network of roles, persones and status through which the institution carries out its activities.

function	Institutions	Major roles	Physical traits	symbolic traits
bearing and rearing children.	Family	Father Mother Child	house furnishings	ring weeding will
Providing food,clothing,and shelter.	Economic	Employer Employee consumer producer	factory office store	merit award emblem trade-mark
enforching laws, rules, and standards.	Political	Ruler subject	public building public works	flag codes charter
promoting cooperative attitudes, faith, hope, charity.	Religious	pastor member	cathedral temple	cross altar bible
Socializing persons into basic values and practices of society.	Education	Teacher student	school college books	diploma degrees

source:Lundberg et. al. sociology, p. 706

Major institutions in rural society:

Generally recognised are five basic institutions in both rural and urban society : the family, religion, the economic, government, and education.

1.       The family: the family is the most multifunctional of all institutions in society, and is a system of organised relationships involving workable and dependable ways of meeting basic social needs. more specifically the family commonly fulfils the following tasks in society:

·         Sex regulation.

·         reproduction and perpetuation of the family and human race ,

·         socialisation

·         provision of economic maintenance and livelihood in many cultures.

·         provision of  love , affection and security to the individual , and

·         provision of class status to the individual of the family into which he has been born.

within the basic institution of the family are secondary institutions such as engagement , marriage, courtship, and relationships with the  family into which marriage has taken place.

The family has tremendous influence on the individual,  his behaviour and his actions for it moulds him from infancy and has significant influence on the development of his personality.

2. Religion: From antiquity , human beings have sought answers to questions concerning the mysteries of creation, relationship to the super natural , a satisfying philosophy of life, and life after death.

Most religious of the world have the following elements:

·         "A set of beliefs regarding the ultimate power in the universe,

·         A set of beliefs regarding the ideal and proper pattern of behaviour,

·         A set of ceremonial ways of expressing these beliefs". [Rose , 1964, p. 203]

Each of the elements will vary in form, in ovservance, in the response they evoke from individuals.

Many taboos in various cultures have religious sanction, e.g., the taboo against eating of pork in jewish and Muslim cultures has definite and precise religious sanction.

Religion include rituals, forms of workship, and organised groups for propa-gating religions.

3. Government: Also referred to as the political institution, government administers the regulatory functions of law and order and maintains security in society.within this major institution are secondary institutions such as military system, police forces, legal system, and diplomatic relations with other countries.Government has many functions e.g.; the normal education of children,physical protection of home, fixation of prices, credit, and the regulation of marriage conditions.Another tendency or trend has been an increase in the number and scope of its functions.

4. Economic or maintenance: Such institutions provide basic physical subsistence for society and meet basic needs for food,shelter, clothing and other necessities.Included are the economic institutions of production -agriculture,industry, and the distribution, exchange, and consumption of commodities, goods and services necessary for human survival.Secondary institutions ibcluded within the major economic institutions are credit and banking system,advertising,cooperatives,etc.

5. Education: Educational institutions are those which seek to socialise individuals in society or introduce them in formal ways into their social and cultural world.Every new generation must be prepared and trained to play a role in society.In some societies, part of the function of the institution of education is performed by the institutions of the family and religion of education is performed by the institutions of the family and of religion.Educational institutions have emerged from this back ground from the home and the temple, the mosque, the church or the ashram to the formal village school, college and university .This major institutions is of tremendous influence on the behaviour of rural people,their inter-relationship and the moulding of behaviour and personality of individuals and group.

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Factors of Human Development

Three major sets of influences operate in moulding man and may be considered factors which affect human development.

1.      Heredity: Mans inherited, inborn characteristic , the physical attributes of man are largely determined of man are largely determined of man are  heredity – his colour, blood type, sex, height, weight and to some extent his mental ability. We refer here only to physical and mental attributes with which child is born.  

2.      Culture: The cultural environment in which man lives and grows . A human being is subjected to many and varied influences by the culture in which he is born and lives from birth until death. Some may move from one culture to another and with this change or repeated changes meet many different influences.

3.      Unique experiences: Specific non-cultural experiences that man has an individual. An individual has personal experiences which are unique to him and which deeply influence his behaviour. From these experiences he builds ideas and behaviour pattern also. Every society has some people whose unique experiences have caused them develop ideas and overt behaviour quite different from or even opposed to those of other member of society.

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The psychology of behaviour

 The psychology of behaviour: The lowest forms of living matter are sensitive to all shorts of stimuli. Living things respond to stimuli for survival. They are conscious of enviroment and adopt to it. This sensitivity to stimuli and purposeful reaction to them is equally characteristic of man as of all living things. The higher forms of life develop several specialised cell structure, some to perform physiological function of their body, and others to serve in different ways. Man has a nervous system with organs that may be classified into –

1.      Receptors: e.g- eyes, nose, ears which recieve stimuli from the external world.

2.     Conductors: e.g- Nerves- which carry stimuli from receptors; and

3.      Effectors: Muscles- which recieve stimuli from conductors and so that the body can adopt itself to its surroundings.

[## Physiological needs: Physiological needs are the basic needs of the human body such as nourishment or maintenance of body temperature]

## Psychological needs may also be universal and five have been so recognised.

1.      Society: Society is a group of people who have lived together long enough, sharing common values, and general interest to be considered as a social unit.

2.      Security: All men need to feel secure both physically and psychologically. Building walls and battlement, raise and maintain armies, develop highly scientific equipment for warfare, make treaties and pacts and use innumerable devices to safeguard themselves against aggression so that they can feel physically secure. Every individual also needs to feel psychologically secure and his behaviour is affeccted if he honest.   

3.     Recognition: It is certainly true that recognition is one of mans basic psychological needs, Every man wants to be recognised- wants to feel that he is someone of consequence- and his behaviour is oriented toward meeting this need.

4.      Response: Life would be intolerable and there would indeed be no civilization at all if people did not respond in some way to one another, for human interaction is essential to the existence of society. Response may vary from deep love to intense hate. Man will use a variety of behavioural devices to secure response from his fellow men.

5.      New Experience: Life would indeed be drab if new experience were limited and if after a few years of life there were nothing new to achieve. The need for new experience has served as a motivation to seek new knowledge, to look beyond the horizon and to know enter outer space. This need has aided progress of civilizations all over the world and will continue to do so.

These five psychological needs do not operate in isolation and mans behaviour does not result from the i—llence of a single need. 

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