Irish Agricultural Development

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Ecological Impacts of Industrial Agriculture and the Possibilities for Truly Sustainable Farming

Ecological Impacts of Industrial Agriculture and the Possibilities for Truly Sustainable Farming

Miguel A. Altieri

Until about four decades ago, crop yields in agricultural systems depended mainly on internal resources, recycling of organic matter, built-in biological control mechanisms, and natural rainfall patterns. Agricultural yields were modest but stable. Production was safeguarded by growing more than one crop or variety in a field as insurance against pest outbreaks or severe weather. Inputs of nitrogen were gained by rotating major field crops with legumes. Growing many different types of crops over the years in the same field also suppressed insects, weeds, and diseases by effectively breaking the life cycles of these pests. A typical corn-belt farmer grew corn rotated with several crops including soybeans as well as the clovers, alfalfa, and small grains needed to maintain livestock. Most of the labor was done by the family with occasional hired help, and no specialized equipment or services were purchased from off-farm sources. In these types of farming systems the link between agriculture and ecology was quite strong and signs of environmental degradation were seldom evident.

The significance of biological diversity in maintaining such systems cannot be overemphasized. Diversity of crops above ground as well as diversity of soil life below ground provided protection against the vagaries of weather, market swings, as well as outbreaks of diseases or insect pests. But as agricultural modernization progressed, the ecology-farming linkage was often broken as ecological principles were ignored or overridden. Numerous agricultural scientists agree that modern agriculture confronts an environmental crisis. A growing number of people have become concerned about the long-term sustainability of existing food production systems. Evidence has accumulated, showing that, while the present farming systems have been extremely productive and able to finish low-cost food, they also bring a variety of economic, environmental and social problems.

Evidence also shows that the very nature of the agricultural structure and prevailing policies in a capitalist setting have led to this environmental crisis by favoring large farm size, specialized production, crop monocultures, and mechanization. Today as more and more farmers are integrated into international economies, the biological imperative of diversity disappears due to the use of many kinds of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers, and specialized farms are rewarded by economies of scale. In turn, lack of good rotations and diversification take away key self-regulating mechanisms, turning monocultures into highly vulnerable agricultural ecosystems (agroecosystems) dependent on high chemical inputs.

The Expansion of Farm Specialization and Monocultures

Monocultures or near monocultures have increased dramatically worldwide, where the same crop (usually corn, wheat, or rice) is grown year after year in the same field, or very simple rotations are used (such as corn-soybeans-corn-soybeans). Also fields that in the past contained many different crops, or a single crop with a high degree of genetic variability, are now entirely devoted to a genetically uniform single crop. Available data indicate that the amount of crop diversity per unit of arable land has decreased and that croplands have also shown a tendency toward concentration in fewer hands. There are political and economic forces influencing the trend to devote large areas to monoculture, and in fact the economies of scale of such systems contribute significantly to the ability of national agricultures to serve international markets.

The technologies allowing the shift toward specialization and monoculture were mechanization, the improvement of crop varieties, and the development of agrochemicals to fertilize crops and control weeds, insects, and other crop pests as well as antibiotics and growth stimulants for agricultural animals. United States government commodity policies over the last several decades encouraged the acceptance and utilization of these technologies. In addition, the largest agribusiness corporations have found that concentrating certain processing facilities for a given product (chickens, hogs, or wheat) in specific areas of the country produces more profits, which lead to more farm and regional specialization. As a result, farms today are fewer, larger, more specialized, and more capital intensive.

There are many problems associated with the increasing extent of monoculture, including the simplification of cropping systems devoted to a single crop variety to the simplification of the landscape through the elimination of natural vegetation

The First Wave of Environmental Problems

The specialization of farms has lead to the image that agriculture is a modern miracle of food production. However, excessive reliance on farm specialization (including crop monocultures) and inputs such as capital-intensive technology, pesticides, and synthetic fertilizers, has negatively impacted the environment and rural society. A number of what might be called Aecological diseases@ have been associated with the intensification of food production and can be grouped into two categories. There are problems directly associated with the basic resources of soil and water, which include soil erosion, loss of inherent soil productivity and depletion of nutrient reserves, salinization and alkalinization (especially in arid and semi-arid regions), pollution of surface and ground water, and loss of croplands to urban development. Problems directly related to crops, animals and pests include loss of crop, wild plant, and animal genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies of pests, pest resurgence and genetic resistance to pesticides, chemical contamination, and destruction of natural control mechanisms. Each Aecological disease@ is usually viewed as an independent problem, rather than what it really is--a symptom of a poorly designed and poorly functioning system. Under conditions of intensive management, treatment of such Adiseases@ requires an increase in the external costs to the extent that, in some agricultural systems, the amount of energy invested to produce a desired yield surpasses the energy harvested.

The substantial yield losses due to pests, about 20 to 30 percent for most crops despite the increase in the use of pesticides (about 4.7 billion pounds of pesticides were used worldwide in 1995, 1.2 billion pounds in the U.S. alone) is a symptom of the environmental crisis affecting agriculture. Cultivated plants grown in genetically homogeneous monocultures do not possess the necessary ecological defense mechanisms to tolerate the impact of pest outbreaks. Modern agriculturists have selected crops mainly for high yields and high palatability, making them more susceptible to pests by sacrificing natural resistance for productivity. And as modern agricultural practices reduce or eliminate the resources and opportunities for natural enemies of pests, their numbers decline, decreasing the biological suppression of pests. Due to this lack of natural controls, an investment of about $40 billion in pesticide control is incurred yearly by U.S. farmers, which is estimated to save approximately $16 billion in U.S. crops. However, the indirect costs of pesticide use to the environment and public health have to be balanced against these benefits. Based on the available data, the environmental cost (impacts on wildlife, pollinators, natural enemies, fisheries, water, and development or resistance) and social costs (human poisonings and illnesses) of pesticide use reach about $8 billion each year. What is worrisome is that pesticide use is still high and still rising in some cropping systems. Data from California show that from 1991 to 1995 pesticide use increased from 161 to 212 million pounds of active ingredient. This increase was not due to increases in planted acreage, as statewide crop acreage remained constant during this period. Much of the increase is for particularly toxic pesticides, many of which are linked to cancer, used on such crops as strawberries and grapes.

In Latin America pesticide use is increasing due to pressures to enhance agroexports. If current globalization trends continue, the pest control cost for Latin America is expected to reach US$ 4 billion by 2001. Several studies alarmingly confirm the widespread risks that pesticide exposure inflicts on small farmers, farmworkers and their families.

The reliance on pesticides to deal with crop pests has created the need to continually develop new pesticides. As a pesticide is used again and again, a certain percentage of the target pest is able to survive because of a natural resistance to the chemical. It doesn=t take too long before a large portion of the target weeds, insects, or other pests become resistant to the pesticide. This keeps the farmer on a Apesticide treadmill@ as the older pesticides lose their effectiveness and new ones need to be used.

Fertilizers have been praised as being responsible for the temporary increase in food production observed in many countries. National average rates of nitrogen applied to most arable lands fluctuate between 120-550 kg N/ha (110 to 490 lb N/A). But bountiful harvests created at least in part through the use of synthetic fertilizers have associated environmental costs. Research has shown that increased application of chemical fertilizers leads to higher incidence of insects and diseases. Chemically fertilized crops exhibit higher foliage levels of free-N making them more susceptible to pests.

Two main reasons why synthetic fertilizers pollute the environment are their wasteful application and the fact that crops use them inefficiently. A significant amount of fertilizer that is not recovered by the crops ends up in a surface or groundwater. Nitrate contamination of aquifers is widespread and in dangerously high levels in many rural regions of the world. It is estimated that more than 25 percent of the drinking water wells in the United States contain nitrogen in the nitrate form above the safety standard of 10 parts per million. Such nitrate levels are hazardous to human health, and studies have linked nitrate uptake to methemoglobinemia (low blood oxygen levels) in children and to gastric, bladder, and esophageal cancers in adults.

It is estimated that about 50-70 percent of all nutrients that reach surface waters in the United States are derived from fertilizers. Fertilizer nutrients that enter surface waters (rivers, lakes, bays) can promote eutrophication, characterized usually by a population explosion of algae. Algal bloom turn the water bright green, sometimes prevent light from penetrating beneath surface layers, and therefore kills plants living on the bottom. Such dead vegetation serves as food for other aquatic microorganisms which soon deplete water of its oxygen, inhibiting the decomposition of organic residues, which accumulate on the bottom. Eventually such nutrient enrichment of freshwater ecosystems can lead to the destruction of all animal life in the water systems. In the Gulf of Mexico there is a huge Adead zone,@ extending from the mouth of the Mississippi River to the west, where the excessive nutrients from farmland are believed to be responsible for oxygen depletion. It is also believed that excess nutrients may stimulate populations of the very toxic form of Pfiesteria, an organism that kills fish and is harmful to humans.

Synthetic nitrogen fertilizers can also become air pollutants, and have recently been implicated in contributing to the destruction of the ozone layer and global warming. Their excessive use causes soils to become more acidic and also leads to nutritional imbalances in plants, resulting in a higher incidence of damage from insect pests and diseases.

It is clear then that the first wave of environmental problems is deeply rooted in the prevalent socioeconomic system that promotes monocultures and the use of high-input technologies and agricultural practices that lead to natural resource degradation. Such degradation is not only an ecological process, but also a social and political-economic process. Therefore, the problem of agricultural production cannot be regarded only as a technological one; attention to social, cultural, political, and economic issues that account for the crisis is crucial. This is particularly true today where the economic and political domination of the rural development agenda by agribusiness had thrived at the expense of the interests of farm workers, small family farms, rural communities, the general public, wildlife, and the environment

The Second Wave of Environmental Problems

Despite the awareness of the impacts of industrial agriculture on the environment, some still argue for further intensification to meet the requirements of agricultural production in the twenty-first century. It is in this context that supporters of Astatus quo agriculture@ celebrate the emergence of biotechnology as the latest magic bullet, which will revolutionize agriculture with products based on nature=s own methods, making farming more environmentally friendly and more profitable for the farmer. Although certain forms of biotechnology may hold promise for an improved agriculture, under the control of multinational corporations it is more likely that the results will be the further industrialization of agriculture, increased environmental harm and the intrusion of private interests into public-interest sector research.

It is ironic that the biotech revolution in agriculture is being promoted by the same corporate interests (Monsanto, Novartis, DuPont) that championed the first wave of chemically-based agriculture. They now claim that by genetically modifying plants they can reduce chemically intensive farming and help develop a more sustainable agriculture. However, their practices to date do not instill great confidence in the supposedly benign effects of their products on the environment. The companies are developing products (various crop varieties) that produce immense profits while completely fitting in with the approaches which have been so harmful in the past. For example, two of the main thrusts of agricultural biotechnology have been the production of crop varieties that are either resistant to herbicides (so farmers will purchase and use more of the company=s weed killing chemicals) or contain a toxin that kills potential insect=s pests (in which case less insecticide is needed). The advantage claimed for the herbicide resistant crops is that the newer herbicides are less toxic than some of the older ones. However, such biotechnological products will do nothing but reinforce the pesticide treadmill in agroecosystems, thus legitimizing the concerns that many scientists have expressed regarding the possible environmental risks of genetically engineered organisms. When genes for the insect toxin from bacteria Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) are incorporated into plants, the plants produce a toxin and feeding insects can be killed. Although less insecticide will be needed for Bt crops, their use can create other problems (see below).

So far, field research as well as predictions based on ecological theory indicate that the major environmental risks associated with the release of genetically engineered crops can be summarized as follows:

(1)   The economic tendencies of corporations is to create broad international markets for a single product, thus creating the conditions for genetic uniformity in rural landscapes. History has repeatedly shown that a huge area planted with a single variety is very vulnerable to a new matching strain of a pathogen or insect pest.

(2) The spread of such crops threatens crop genetic diversity by simplifying cropping systems and promoting genetic erosion as older varieties become extinct.

(3) There is potential for the unintended transfer to plant relatives of the added genes with unpredictable ecological effects. The transfer of genes from herbicide resistant crops to wild or semi-domesticated relatives through cross-pollination can lead to the creation of super weeds.

(4) Most insect pests will quickly develop resistance to the Bt toxin. Several moth species have been reported to have developed resistance to Bt toxin in both field and laboratory tests, suggesting that major resistance problems are likely to develop in Bt crops. The farmers that face the greatest risk from the development of insect resistance to Bt are neighboring organic farmers who grow corn, cotton or soybeans without agrochemicals. Once resistance appears in insect populations, organic farmers will not be able to use Bacillus thuringiensis in its microbial insecticide form to control Lepidoptera pests that move in from adjacent transgenic fields.

(5) Massive use of B.t. toxin in crops can unleash potential negative interactions affecting ecological processes and non-target organisms. Studies conducted in Switzerland show that Bt crops exerted mortality on predaceous lacewings raised on Bt-fed prey. These findings are of concern to small or organic farmers that rely for insect pest control on the rich complex of predators and parasites associated with their mixed plantings. Predators that move within and between mixed crop cultivars will encounter BT-containing nontarget prey throughout the season, potentially disrupting natural pest control mechanisms and thus making farmers dependent on pesticides.

(6) Bt toxins can also be incorporated into the soil through leaf materials and litter, where they may persist for two to three months, resisting degradation by binding to soil clay particles while maintaining toxic activity, in turn negatively affecting soil organisms and nutrient cycling. The fact that Bt retains its insecticidal properties persisting bound to soil particles for at least 230 days, is of serious concern to small farmers who cannot purchase expensive chemical fertilizers. Instead they rely on local organic residues and soil biota for soil fertility, which can be negatively affected by the soil bound toxin.

(7) A potential risk of plants containing introduced genetic material from viruses opens the possibility of new virus strains developing when viruses that infect the plant combine with the viral genes introduced by biotech companies.

(8) Another important environmental concern associated with the large-scale cultivations of virus-resistant, genetically modified crops relates to the possible transfer via flower pollen of virus-derived genes into wild plant relatives.

Although there are many unanswered questions regarding the impact of the release into the environment of plants and micro-organisms containing genes from other organisms, it is expected that biotechnology will exacerbate the problems of conventional agriculture, and by promoting monocultures will also undermine ecological methods of farming such as rotation and polycultures (where two or more crops are grown together). Because genetically modified crops developed for pest control emphasize the use of a single control mechanism, which has proven to fail over and over again with insects, pathogens, and weeds, these crops are likely to increase the use of pesticides and to accelerate the evolution of Asuper weeds@ and resistant insect pest strains. The possibilities are worrisome, especially when considering that in 200 the global area devoted to genetically modified crops reached 42 million hectares with United States , Canada and Argentina leading the way. In most countries prudent safety standards to monitor such releases are absent or are inadequate to prevent or even predict ecological risks. In the industrialized countries from 1986-1992, over half of all field trials to test genetically modified crops involved herbicide tolerance. As Roundup (made by Monsanto) and other broad spectrum herbicides are increasingly used on cropland, the options for farmers for a diversified agriculture will be even more limited.

The Barriers for the Implementation of Alternatives

The agroecological approach seeks the diversification and revitalization of medium size and small farms and the reshaping of the entire agricultural policy and food system in ways that are economically viable to farmers and the general public. In fact, throughout the world there are hundreds of movements that are pursuing a change toward ecologically sensitive farming systems from a variety of perspectives. Some emphasize the production of organic products for lucrative markets, some land stewardship, while others promote the empowerment of peasant communities. In general, however, the goals are usually the same; to secure food self-sufficiency, to preserve the natural resource base, and to ensure social equity and economic viability.

Some well-intentioned groups suffer from technological determinism, and emphasize the development and dissemination of low-input or appropriate technologies. Somehow, it is believed, these technologies in themselves have the capability of initiating beneficial social changes. The organic farming school that emphasizes input substitution (i.e. a biological insecticide substituted for a more toxic synthetic one), but leaves the monoculture structure untouched, epitomizes those groups that have a relatively benign view of capitalist agriculture. Such a perspective has unfortunately prevented many groups from understanding the structural roots of environmental degradation linked to monoculture farming.

The acceptance of the present structure of agriculture as a given condition restricts the real possibility of implementing alternatives that challenge such a structure. Thus options for a diversified agriculture are inhibited by, among other factors, the present trends in farm size and mechanization. Implementation of such mixed agriculture would only be possible as part of a broader program that includes land reform and farm machinery redesigned for polycultures. Merely introducing alternative agriculture designs will do little to change the underlying forces that led to monoculture production, farm size expansion, and large-scale mechanization in the first place.

Similarly, obstacles to changing cropping systems have been created by the government commodity programs in place these last decades. The programs rewarded those who maintained monocultures of grain by assuring these producers a particular price for their product. Those who failed to plant the allotted acreage of corn and other price-supported crops lost area from their allowed Abase,@ on which future subsidies would be paid. This reduced their potential income from the price-support program. Consequently the programs created a competitive disadvantage for those who used a crop rotation. Although the price-support system is being phased out, the pattern it helped to develop is very well established.

On the other hand, the large influence of transnational corporations (TNCs) in promoting sales of agrochemicals cannot be ignored as a barrier to sustainable farming. Most TNCs have taken advantage of existing policies that promote the enhanced participation of the private sector in technology development and delivery, putting themselves in a powerful position to scale up promotion and marketing of pesticides. Given such a scenario, it is clear that the future of agriculture will be determined by power relations, and there is no reason why farmers and the public in general, if sufficiently empowered, could not influence the direction of agriculture toward goals of sustainability.

Conclusions

The nature of the modern agricultural structure and contemporary policies have strongly influenced the context of agricultural technology and production, which in turn has led to numerous environmental problems. Given the realities of capitalism, resource-conserving practices are discouraged and in many cases such practices are not profitable for farmers. The expectation that a set of policy changes could bring a renaissance of diversified or small-scale farms may be unrealistic, because it negates the existence of economies of scale in agriculture and ignores the political power of agribusiness corporations and current globalization trends. A more radical transformation of agriculture is needed, one guided by the notion that ecological change in agriculture cannot be promoted without comparable changes in the social, political, cultural, and economic arenas that also constrain agriculture. Change toward a more socially just, economically viable, and environmentally sound agriculture will be the result of social movements in the rural sector in alliance with urban organizations.

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Agriculture Glossary

Agriculture Glossary

Term	Definition
Acid soils	Soil with a pH of less than 7.0.
Agribusiness	-Agriculturally related businesses that supply farm inputs (such as fertilizer or equipment) or are involved in the marketing of farm products (such as warehouses, processors, wholesalers, transporters, and retailers). Farms are not usually included when the term agribusiness is used.
Agroecosystem	is a modified natural ecosystems to optimize the production of human food, including consideration of wider issues such as resource usage and environmental impacts
Alcohol	The family name of a group of organic chemical compounds that includes methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and others. Ethanol is produced from crops or residues with high carbohydrate content. Alcoholic beverages contain ethanol, and ethanol is blended with gasoline to produce gasohol.
Alkaline soil	Soil with a pH of more than 7.0.
Alternative energy	Substitutes for traditional liquid, oil-derived motor vehicle fuels like gasoline and diesel. Includes methanol, ethanol, biodiesel, compressed natural gas, and others. The alternatives are promoted for pollution reduction properties and/or to reduce U.S. dependence on imported oil. Ethanol can be produced from grain, agricultural wastes, and excess crops.
Animal drugs	Drugs intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in animals.
Animal identification	Currently, the private marketing system, assisted by computerization of records, generally can trace products back to their original suppliers. Livestock passports identify animals using back-tags, ear tags, tattoos, and other devices.
Antibiotics	Chemical substances produced by microorganisms or synthetically that inhibit the growth of, or destroy, bacteria. Antibiotics are used at therapeutic levels to fight disease in humans and animals. Since the 1950s they have been used at sub-therapeutic levels in animal feeds to enhance growth and prevent disease in livestock and poultry. There are rules guiding the use of veterinary drugs and medicated animal feeds, including tolerance levels for drug residues in meats for human consumption
Aquaculture	The production of aquatic plants or animals in a controlled environment, such as ponds, raceways, tanks, or cages, for all or part of their life cycle. Prawns, salmon, shrimp, tropical (or ornamental) fish, and trout account for most of the aquacultural growing production. Less widely established but growing species include alligator, hybrid striped bass, carp, eel, red fish, northern pike, sturgeon and tilapia.
Aquifer	An underground geological formation, containing usable amounts of groundwater that can supply wells or springs for domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses.
Artificial insemination (AI)	-The mechanical injection of semen into the womb of the female animal with a syringe-like apparatus.
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations	A multilateral organization formed in 1967 by the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote economic, social, and cultural cooperation among nations in the Southeast Asian region. Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar joined later.
Barrier crops	Reduce chance of pest finding the crop. E.g. onions protect carrots from root fly attack due to their strong smell
Bioaccumulation	The absorption and concentration of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and certain pesticides in plants and animals. Toxicity can be expressed in several ways: lead that is ingested by calves can bioaccumulate in their bones, interfering with calcium absorption and bone development; stored chemicals may be released to the blood stream at a later time, for example, during gestation or weight loss; and chemicals may concentrate to lethal levels at  upper ends of the food chain. Bioconcentration is a synonym for biaccumulation.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)	A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by natural, biological processes that break down organic matter, such as those that take place when manure or sawdust is put in water. High levels of oxygen-demanding wastes in waters deplete dissolved oxygen (DO) thereby endangering aquatic life. Sometimes referred to as "biological oxygen demand.
Biodiesel	It is typically produced through the reaction of a vegetable oil or animal fat with methanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield glycerin and biodiesel (chemically called methyl esters). It is an alternative fuel that can be used by itself or blended with petroleum diesel for use in diesel engines. Its use can result in substantial reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter.
Biodiversity	In general, the variety and variation among plants, animals, and microorganisms, and among their ecosystems. It has 3 levels: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic (within species) diversity. The concept of maintaining biodiversity holds that civilization should preserve the greatest possible number of existing species so that a highly diverse genetic pool, which can be tapped for useful and beneficial characteristics, will be available into the future. Genetic diversity provides resources for genetic resistance to pests and diseases. In agriculture, biodiversity is a production system characterized by the presence of multiple plant and/or animal species, as contrasted with the genetic specialization of monoculture.
Biological control	Involves the introduction of predators, pathogens or parasites of the pest. e.g. Whitefly control by chalcid wasp
Biomagnification	(AKA biological magnification) The increase in the concentration of bioaccumulated toxic chemicals in organisms higher on the food chain due to preferential storage of the toxic chemical in edible body parts. For example, chlorinated pesticides concentrate in the fat and skin of fish in contaminated lakes and streams and are biomagnified when those fish are eaten by larger fish, and perhaps eventually by mammals or birds of prey.
Biomass	The generic term for any living matter that can be converted into usable energy through biological or chemical processes. It encompasses feedstocks such as agricultural crops and their residues, animal wastes, wood, wood residues and grasses, and municipal wastes.
Bio-security; bio-terrorism (US definition)	"Bio-security" refers to the policies, and measures taken, for protecting a nation’s food supply and agricultural resources from both accidental contamination and deliberate attacks of "bio-terrorism." Now viewed as an emerging threat, bio-terrorism might include such acts as introducing pests intended to kill U.S. food crops; spreading a virulent disease among animal production facilities; and poisoning water, food, and blood supplies. The federal government is now increasing its efforts to improve bio-security because of the recognition that the United States is currently vulnerable, both from a civil and military standpoint.
Biotechnology	The use of technology, based on living systems, to develop processes and products for commercial, scientific or other purposes. These include specific techniques of plant regeneration and gene manipulation and transfer. In the past, producers used cross-hybridization to alter a plant's genetic makeup. With biotechnology, DNA can be altered directly
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)	Commonly known as "mad cow disease," BSE is a slowly progressive, incurable disease affecting the central nervous system of cattle, first diagnosed in Britain in 1986. Consumption by cattle of BSE-contaminated ruminant proteins in animal feed has been cited as one possible means of transmission. Scientists have confirmed a link between BSE in cattle and several dozen recent European cases of a human variant of BSE, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease. More than 77,000 cattle suspected of having been exposed to the disease have been slaughtered in Great Britain, and a ban on ruminant protein-containing feeds was imposed in 1988.
Bovine tuberculosis	A highly contagious disease of cattle that causes severe economic losses, especially in dairy herds. Farmers insist TB is transferred by badgers and there is controversy about culling them.
Broiler	A young chicken, usually 6 to 8 weeks old and 3 to 5 pounds, raised primarily for its meat, associated with intensive poultry farming.
Buffer strips	Slender areas of permanent vegetation, often planted along the edge or the contour of a field, usually to slow the flow of water or the velocity of wind, in order to capture sediment and other materials before they leave the farm and become pollutants. Types of buffers include filter strips, field borders, grassed waterways, field windbreaks, shelterbelts, contour grass strips, and riparian ( along waterways) buffers.
Bycatch	Fish or other sea creatures caught unintentionally during commercial fishing operations
Carbon sequestration	Retention of carbon in ways that prevent or delay its emission to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This may help mitigate climate change by reducing the amount in the atmosphere. Silvicultural practices that encourage rapid, long term tree growth are an example. Crop residue retention practices designed to prevent erosion and improve the productivity of soil, such as conservation tillage, also retain larger amounts of carbon compared to many traditional cultivation practices.
Carrying capacity	The maximum stocking rate for livestock possible without damaging vegetation or related resources.
Cash Crops	Commercial arable e.g. mange tout in Kenya
Center pivot irrigation	A self-propelled irrigation system in which a single pipeline supported on towers rotates around a central point.
Channelization	Engineering watercourses by straightening, widening, or deepening them so water will move faster. While improving drainage, this process can interfere with waste assimilation capacity, disturb fish and wildlife habitats, and aggravate flooding in other areas.
Chronic Hunger	Long-term hunger caused by endemic problems of availability and access, rather than by temporary emergencies.
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) -	The set of legislation and practices jointly adopted by the nations of the European Union (EU) in order to provide a common, unified policy framework for agriculture. Its stated purposes are to increase farm productivity, stabilize markets, ensure a fair standard of living for farmers, guarantee regular supplies, and ensure reasonable prices for consumers.
Composting	The controlled biological decomposition of organic material, such as sewage sludge, animal manures, or crop residues, in the presence of air to form a humus-like material. Controlled methods of composting include mechanical mixing and aerating, ventilating the materials by dropping them through a vertical series of aerated chambers, or placing the compost in piles out in the open air and mixing it or turning it periodically.
Conservation	The management of human and natural resources to provide maximum benefits over a sustained period of time (see sustainable agriculture). In farming, conservation entails matching cropping patterns and the productive potential and physical limitations of agricultural lands to ensure long-term sustainability of profitable production. Conservation practices focus on conserving soil, water, energy, and biological resources. Contour farming, no-till farming, and integrated pest management are typical examples of conservation practices
Conservation tillage	Any tillage and planting system that leaves at least 30% of the soil surface covered by residue after planting. Conservation tillage maintains a ground cover with less soil disturbance than traditional cultivation, thereby reducing soil loss and energy use while maintaining crop yields and quality. Conservation tillage techniques include minimum tillage, mulch tillage, ridge tillage, and no-till.
Cooperative	An enterprise or organization owned by and operated for the benefit of those using its services. In agriculture, such an organization is owned and used by farmers mainly to handle the off-farm part of their businesses — buying farm supplies, marketing their products, furnishing electric and telephone service, and providing business services —at cost. Essential features are democratic control, limited return on capital, and operation at cost, with distribution of financial benefits to individuals in proportion to their use of the services made available by the cooperative
Cover crop	A close-growing crop, planted primarily as a rotation between regularly planted crops, or between trees and vines in orchards and vineyards, to protect soil from erosion and improve it between periods of regular crops.
Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD)	A sporadic and rare, but fatal human disease that usually strikes people over 65. It occurs worldwide at an estimated annual rate of one case per million population. About 10-15% of CJD cases are inherited. A small number of cases occurred as the result of various medical treatments or procedures which inadvertently transferred the CJD agent. In March 1996, the British government announced a possible link between bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and CJD. The announcement was prompted by the discovery of several atypical cases of CJD in Great Britain.
Crop insurance	Insurance that protects farmers from crop losses due to natural hazards. This is only available in MEDCs e.g.  Hail and fire insurance are offered through private companies without federal subsidy in the USA
Crop residue	That portion of a plant, such as a corn stalk, left in the field after harvest. Crop residues can be used a straw materials or by products, also farmers use conservation tillage
Crop rotation	The growing of different crops, in recurring succession, on the same land in contrast to monoculture cropping. Crop rotation helps to spread the demand for nutrients by growing different crops each year, often in a four year cycle.
Culling	The selective killing of competitors can keep their population to a level where damage is acceptable. E.g. killing of rabbits or deer
Cultural methods	Practices used to enhance crop and livestock health and prevent weed, pest or disease problems without the use of chemical substances; examples include the selection of appropriate varieties and planting sites; selection of appropriate breeds of livestock; providing livestock facilities designed to meet requirements of species or type of livestock; proper timing and density of plantings; irrigation; and extending a growing season by manipulating the microclimate with green houses, cold frames, or wind breaks.
DDT	The abbreviated name of a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloromethane. It is persistent in the environment and biomagnifies in birds of prey. The Environmental Protection Agency canceled U.S. registration of virtually all but emergency uses of DDT in 1972.
Diversification	Involves farmers producing new products or providing services that reduce reliance on products that are being over-produced: non-food crops, conservation cropping, organic farming, recreation and small-scale industry
Double cropping	The practice of consecutively producing two crops of either like or unlike commodities on the same land within the same year. An example of double cropping might be to harvest a wheat crop by early summer and then plant corn or soybeans on that acreage for harvest in the fall. This practice is only possible in regions with long growing seasons.
Drainage	Improving the productivity of agricultural land by removing excess water from the soil by such means as ditches, drainage wells, or subsurface drainage tiles.
Drift netting	nets supported by floats catch species such as tuna and herring but also catch by-catch species e.g. dolphins, whales, turtles and sharks.
E. coli 0157:H7 (Escherichia Coli 0157:H7)	A bacterium that lives harmlessly in the intestines of animals such as cattle, reptiles, and birds. However, in humans the bacterium, which can be transmitted through foods, can cause bloody diarrhea, and also lead to hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), a life threatening disease. Although other known strains of E. coli are thought to be harmless to humans, the 0157:H7 strain is particularly virulent and dangerous. It has been implicated in several major outbreaks of food borne illness in recent years.
Effluent	Waste, usually liquid, released or discharged to the environment. Generally the term refers to point source discharges of sewage or contaminated waste waters into surface waters.
El Niño	A cyclical disruption of the ocean-atmosphere system in the tropical Pacific that has important consequences for global weather, including increased rainfall in the southern United States and Peru, and drought in the western Pacific. El Niño conditions result in a rise in sea surface temperature and a decline in primary productivity, which can affect higher levels of the ocean's foodchain, including commercial fishing.
Endangered species	Species of animals or plants likely to go extinct in the foreseeable future unless current trends are altered. They are listed by regulation under the Endangered Species Act and assigned the Act’s highest level of protection.
Energy Ratio	Energy Ratio is calculated as the energy output (harvested yield) per unit of energy input (from all sources) This enables comparison of  the energy ratios of different agricultural production systems and different crop plants and animals.
Erosion (erodibility) index (EI)	The erosion (sometimes called erodibility) index is created by dividing potential erosion (from all sources except gully erosion) by the T value, which is the rate of soil erosion above which long term productivity may be adversely affected. The erodibility index is used in the conservation compliance and Conservation Reserve Programs. For example, one of the eligibility requirements for the CRP is that land have an EI greater than 8.
Ethanol	C2H5OH; the alcohol product of carbohydrate fermentation used in alcoholic beverages and for industrial purposes (also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol). It is blended with gasoline to make gasohol. In the 1998/99 corn marketing year, about 540 million bushels
European Union	The EU attempts to unify and integrate 15 member economies by establishing a customs union and common economic policies, including CAP. Member nations include Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Finland, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Eutrophication	The process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of plant nutrients, especially nitrates or phosphates. This nutrification promotes algae growth that, when it dies, can lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen, killing fish and other aquatic organisms. While eutrophication is a natural, slow-aging process for a body of water, human activities can greatly accelerate the process.
Evapotranspiration	The loss of water from the soil both by evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing in the soil.
Exotic species	A species that is not native to a region
Export subsidy	A direct or indirect compensation provided by government to private commercial firms to promote exports of domestic products. Article 16 of the GATT considers that export subsidies are unfair competition and allows countervailing duties to be imposed on subsidized products. Indirect methods of export subsidization include government subsidized financing for exports, export promotion and information activities, tax benefits, or other forms of assistance that may lead to lower than normal costs for exported products. The Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture imposes limits on agricultural export subsidies.
Extensive systems	spread the inputs over a larger area. Yield per unit area is lower, but the yield per unit input is higher. E.g. cattle ranching in Australia, upland sheep farming in the UK, cereal growing in Australia
Factory ships	these allow the processing and preservation of large quantities of fish which allows fishing fleets to operate far from their home ports. Long-distance fleets use a lot of fuel
Fallow cropland	Cropland left idle during the growing season. It may be tilled or sprayed to control weeds and conserve moisture in the soil.
Farm inputs	The resources that are used in farm production, such as chemicals, equipment, feed, seed, and energy. Most farm inputs are purchased (a change from the days when animals powered most operations), making production costs susceptible to nonfarm economic conditions. Over time, prices of farm inputs have increased relative to commodity prices, creating what farmers describe as a cost-price squeeze.
Farmers Market	-A market where producers, generally farmers, sell their goods directly to consumers.
Feed grain	Any of several grains most commonly used for livestock feed, including corn, grain sorghum, oats, rye, and barley. These grains and the farms producing them historically have received federal price and income support. They qualify as contract commodities and receive production flexibility contract payments.
Fertilizer	Any organic or inorganic material, either natural or synthetic, used to supply elements (such as nitrogen, phosphate and potash) essential for plant growth. If used in excess or attached to eroding soil, fertilizers can become a source of water pollution.
Fish farming	Usually, freshwater commercial aquaculture; catfish farms are an example.
Foot-and-mouth disease	(FMD) - A major disease of cloven-footed animals (e.g., cattle and pigs) that does not exist in the United States. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service conducts a surveillance program to track the disease in foreign countries, regulates the importation of animal products from countries where FMD exists, and tests imported animals in quarantine.
Forage	Vegetable matter, fresh or preserved, that is gathered and fed to animals as roughage includes alfalfa hay, corn silage, and other hay crops.
Free market	A system in which the market forces of supply and demand determine prices and allocate available supplies, without government intervention. The concept of a free-market approach in agricultural policy, in its purest form, is no government price and income support programs, supply management programs, export subsidies, or barriers to international trade.
Free Trade Agreement of the Americas	(FTAA) - A proposed multilateral agreement that would establish free trade in all products, including agricultural products, for all the countries of the Western Hemisphere, except Cuba. Launched at the Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile, in March 1998, the negotiations to establish the FTAA are expected to be completed by 2005.
Fumigant	A vaporized pesticide used to control pests in soil, buildings and greenhouses, and chambers holding products such as fruits to be treated. Methyl bromide is an example.
Fungicide	Any pesticide used to control, deter, or destroy fungi, which are forms of plant life (including molds and yeasts) that lack chlorophyll and are unable to make their own food (such as the plant pathogen, powdery mildew).
Furrow irrigation	Small, shallow channels guide water across the surface of a leveled field. Crops are typically grown on a ridge or raised bed between the furrows. This is the major irrigation system that is based on gravity.
Gasohol	Registered trade name for a blend consisting of 90% unleaded gasoline and 10% fermentation ethanol. Gasohol emissions contain less carbon monoxide than those from gasoline.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)	An agreement originally negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland in 1947 to increase international trade by reducing tariffs and nontariff trade barriers. The agreement provides a code of conduct for international commerce and a framework for periodic multilateral negotiations on trade liberalization and expansion. The Uruguay Round Agreement (resulting from negotiations that stretched from 1986 through 1993 among over 100 nations) established the World Trade Organization (WTO) to replace the institutions created by the GATT. The WTO officially replaced the GATT institutions on January 1, 1995.
Genetic engineering	The use of recombinant DNA or other specific molecular gene transfer or exchange techniques to add desirable traits to plants, animals, or other organisms, or to enhance biological processes. Organisms modified by genetic engineering are sometimes referred to as transgenic, bioengineered, or genetically modified.
Genetically Modified Organisms	(GMO) - A term, currently used most often in international trade discussions, that designates crops that carry new traits that have been inserted through advanced genetic engineering methods (e.g., Flavr Saver tomato, Roundup Ready soybeans). GMO crops are meeting resistance from some trading partners, particularly the European Union, that are responding in turn to consumer concerns over public health and environmental safety aspects of GMOs.
Genome	All the genetic material in the chromosomes of a particular organism. USDA’s research agencies have a Plant Genome Mapping Program to identify, characterize, and map the position of agriculturally important genes on the chromosomes of plants grown as crops or trees in order to better use these genes for improving the characteristics of the plant (resistance to disease, higher yields, etc.) through breeding.
Geographic Information System	(GIS) - Computerized systems used to compile, retrieve, analyze, and display spatially referenced data. Farming activities that utilize GIS typically include harvesting, fertilizing, pest control, seeding, and irrigation. Use of GIS is called precision farming.
Ghost fishing nets	fishing nets that have been left or lost in the ocean by fishermen.
Global Positioning System	(GPS) - A network of satellites that can be used by ground-based units to precisely determine their location by latitude and longitude. GPS is part of the infrastructure required to operate geographic information systems that are used to practice precision farming.
Green manure	Any crop or plant grown and plowed under to improve the soil, by adding organic matter and subsequently releasing plant nutrients, especially nitrogen.
G-7	Group of Seven - An international economic forum, established in 1975, for leaders of the seven largest industrial countries (France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada). The focus of G-7 discussions has been coordination of macroeconomic policies and international trade and monetary policies.
Growing season	The time period, usually measured in days, between the last freeze in the spring and the first frost in the fall. Growing seasons vary depending on local climate and geography. It can also vary by crop, as different plants have different freezing thresholds. It also is an important component in defining wetland areas.
Gully erosion	Also called ephemeral gully erosion, this process occurs when water flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow. A gully is sufficiently deep that it would not be routinely destroyed by tillage operations whereas rill erosion is smoothed by ordinary farm tillage. The narrow channels, or gullies, may be of considerable depth , ranging from 1 to 2 feet to as much as 75 to 100 feet.
Hectare	(ha) - A metric measure of area equal to 10,000 square meters. One hectare=2.47 acres. One acre=0.405 hectares.
Herbicide	Any pesticide used to destroy or inhibit plant growth; a weed killer.
Horticulture	specialty crops - bedding plants, florists’ greens, flower and vegetable seeds, flowers, foliage, fruit stocks, nursery and ornamental plants, mushrooms, and vegetables grown under cover (e.g., in greenhouses).
Humus	The well decomposed, relatively stable portion of the partly or wholly decayed organic matter in a soil, which provides nutrients and helps the soil retain moisture.
Hydroponics	The growing of plants without soil by using an inert medium such as sand, peat, or vermiculite and adding a nutrient solution containing all the essential elements needed by the plant for its normal growth and development. Water culture, when plant roots are suspended in a liquid medium containing the nutrient solution while their crowns are supported in a thin layer of inert medium, is true hydroponics. Often called soilless culture, it also includes aeroponics where plant roots are suspended in a dark chamber and sprayed with the nutrient solution.
Industrial crops	Crops that primarily have industrial applications in contrast to food or livestock feed uses. Industrial uses account for a relatively small but a growing and potentially much larger share of the market for farm commodities. Some of the industrial and experimental crops include: castor beans (lubricants, nylon, cosmetics); chia (cosmetics); crotalaria (fibers); cuphea (soap, surfactants); guar (food stiffeners, drilling muds, paper manufacturing); guayule (natural rubber and hypoallergenic latex products); hesperaloe (specialty pulp paper); kenaf (twine, fiberboard, carpet padding, newsprint); lesquerella (lubricants, cosmetics); meadowfoam (cosmetics, lubricants, water repellents); milkweed (insulated clothing, filler for comforters, nonwoven textiles) and plantago ovato (high fiber additive to laxatives). While maize is the primary feedstock for ethanol, it is not considered an industrial crop because nearly 95% of US production goes to feed uses.
Infiltration	The downward entry of water into soil. Also called percolation. A high rate of infiltration means that soil moisture for crops will be higher. Many conservation practices, such as conservation tillage, reduce rates of runoff and increase infiltration rates.
Infrastructure	The transportation network, communications systems, financial institutions, and other public and private services necessary for economic activity. Poorly developed in LEDCs
Insecticide	A pesticide used to kill, deter, or control insects.
International Monetary Fund	(IMF) - A multilateral financial institution established in 1945 to help member countries with international payments problems and to maintain orderly exchange rate policies. Lends money to support LEDC development projects.
Intensive systems	achieve a high yield with high inputs on a limited area of land e.g. energy as labour or machinery materials as fertilisers, pesticides capital to pay for machinery, chemicals
Invasive species	Alien (non-native) species of plants, animals, and pests whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health.
Irradiation	The process of exposing food or other items to radiation of various wavelengths in order to destroy contamination from undesirable organisms, achieve insect disinfestation or delay maturation. There are various types of irradiation treatments (gamma, x-ray and ultraviolet) with various characteristics and limitations to consider in building irradiation facilities.
Irrigation	Applying water (or wastewater) to land areas to supply the water (and sometimes nutrient) needs of plants. Techniques for irrigating include furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, trickle (or drip) irrigation, and flooding. E.g. USA About 51 million acres of land are irrigated in the United States. More acres of corn are irrigated than any other crop, but only about 15% of the harvested acres. In contrast, irrigation is used for 100% of rice, 81% of orchards, 64% of vegetables, and 36% of cotton. About 40% of freshwater withdrawals in the nation are for irrigation, making agriculture the single largest user of water. Nearly 90% of all irrigation water withdrawals are in the western states, where in some areas competition for available supplies among uses, including base stream flow, has become controversial. Consumptive use as a percent of withdrawals is about 61% for irrigation
La Niña -	a Cyclical disruption in the ocean-atmosphere system characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the equatorial Pacific. These ocean conditions are just the opposite of El Niño; in latin La Niña means temperature fall
Leaching	The process by which chemicals are dissolved and transported through the soil by percolating water. Pesticides and nutrients from fertilizers or manures may leach from fields, areas of spills, or feedlots and thereby enter surface water, groundwater, or soil. Leaching from concentrated sources such as waste sites and loading areas vulnerable to spills can be prevented by paving or containment with a liner of relatively impermeable material designed to keep leachate inside a treatment pond, landfill, or a tailings disposal area. Liner materials include plastic and dense clay.
Legumes	A family of plants, including many valuable food, forage and cover species, such as peas, beans, soybeans, peanuts, clovers, alfalfas, sweet clovers, lupin, vetches, and kudzu. Sometimes referred to as nitrogen-fixing plants, they can convert nitrogen from the air to build up nitrogen in the soil. Legumes are an important rotation crop because of their nitrogen-fixing property.
Long-lining	Long fishing lines reduce the by catch of using nets but can catch other species on the hooks e.g. albatrosses, turtles and sharks
Malnutrition	A human condition that results from an excess, imbalance, or deficit of nutrients. It is generally defined as some measurable degree of ill health due to inadequate nutrition that can be prevented or cured by improved nutrition. Malnutrition can include starvation and result in protein deficiency, iodine-deficient goitres’, tooth decay, osteoporosis, and other conditions. It may also include obesity, some types of arteriosclerosis, hypertension due to excess sodium, anaemia’s due to lack or iron, folic acid, or vitamin B-12, as well as classic nutritional deficiencies that cause scurvy, beriberi, pellagra, kwashiorkor, and rickets.
Mariculture	The form of aquaculture where fish, shellfish, or aquatic plants are cultured in a salt water environment.
Maximum Sustainable Yield	(MSY) is the maximum harvest that will not reduce the ability of the population to replace losses
Methane	A gas created by anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds. Methane is a greenhouse gas Animal wastes,  cattle farts and padi rice fields are a major source of methane releases to the atmosphere.
Methanol	A liquid alcohol (also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol), formed in the destructive distillation of wood or made synthetically, and used especially as an alternative fuel, a gasoline additive, a solvent, an antifreeze, or a denaturant for ethyl alcohol. As a gasoline additive it lowers the carbon monoxide emissions but increases hydrocarbon emissions.
Migrant farmworker	A person who travels across intenational boundaries to do agricultural work of a seasonal or other temporary nature.
Minimum tillage	The minimum soil manipulation necessary for crop production. Conservation tillage, reduced tillage, and no-till farming are related terms.
Monoculture	A pattern of crop or tree production that relies on a single plant variety.
Mulching	Involves adding a layer of material on the soil surface. e.g. shredded crop waste or bark. It prevents the seeds of competitors from germinating or young plants from growing.
Multicropping	Growing two or more crops on a field at the same time, but with different planting and harvesting times, means the field is never completely exposed to wind and rain.
Nematode	Microscopic soil worm, which may attack roots or other structures of plants and cause extensive damage.
Nitrate	The nitrogen ion, NO3-, is derived from nitric acid and is an important source of nitrogen in fertilizers. Nitrate pollution of drinking water, shallow wells being particularly vulnerable, is of concern because infants are especially sensitive.
No-till farming	A method of planting crops that involves no seed bed preparation (ploughing) other than opening the soil to place individual seeds in holes or small slits; usually no cultivation during crop production; chemical weed control is normally used. May also be referred to as slot tillage or zero cultivation.
NGO	Non-Governmental Organization A private sector nonprofit organization. Some NGOs working in international development are accredited by the United Nations or its agencies.
NAFTA	North American Free Trade Agreement - involving Canada, Mexico and the U.S.
Noxious weeds	Undesirable plants that infest either land or water resources and cause physical and economic damage. E.g. Japanese knotweed
Ocean ranching	A type of aquaculture, used mainly by the salmon industry, which cultures juvenile fish, releases them to mature in the open ocean, and catches them when they return as adults to spawn.
Offal	The less valuable byproduct material from the preparation of a specific product; primarily refers to the byproducts of meat and poultry plants, e.g., blood, bone, feathers, fat.
Oilseed crops	Primarily soybeans, sunflower seed, canola, rapeseed, safflower, flaxseed, mustard seed, peanuts and cottonseed, used for the production of cooking oils, protein meals for livestock, and industrial uses. Other oilseed crops include castor beans and sesame.
Organic	Chemically, a compound or molecule containing carbon bound to hydrogen. Organic compounds make up all living matter. The term organic frequently is used to distinguish "natural" products or processes from man-made "synthetic" ones. Thus natural fertilizers include manures or rock phosphate, as opposed to fertilizers synthesized from chemical feedstocks.
Organic farming	There is no universally accepted definition, but in general organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manure, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks, and aspects or biological pest control to maintain soil productivity, to supply plant nutrients and to control weeds, insects and other pests.
Pastureland	Land used primarily for the production of domesticated forage plants for livestock
Perishable commodities	Farm goods that prior to processing cannot be stored for a substantial period of time without excessive loss through deterioration or spoilage. Examples of perishable commodities are fresh fruits and vegetables, meat and poultry.
Permanent vegetative cover	Trees, or perennial grasses, legumes, or shrubs with an expected life span of at least 5 years.
Pest	An animal or plant that is directly or indirectly detrimental to human interests, causing harm or reducing the quality and value of a harvestable crop or other resource. Weeds, termites, rats, and mildew are examples of pests.
Pesticide	A substance used to kill, control, repel, or mitigate any pest. Insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, herbicides, and germicides are all pesticides.
pH	An expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid or of soil; the logarithmic scale ranges from 0 to 14, where 0 is the most acid, 7 is neutral, and above 7 is alkaline. Natural waters usually have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5. Plants have differing tolerances for acidity and alkalinity.
Phosphorus	An essential nutrient for plants and animals that is commonly applied to crops as a phosphate fertilizer. Phosphorus can contribute to the eutrophication of lakes and other water bodies. Sources of excess phosphorus include sewage and agricultural runoff.
Point source pollution	A source of pollution from a discernable, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, from which pollutants are or may be discharged.
Polyculture	AKA Companion crops- This involves growing combinations of crops to maximize production. One crop may benefit another by creating a microclimate, providing nutrients, distracting pests, deterring pests or supporting pollinators. E.g. banana trees protect coffee bushes from extremes of tropical climates. In the Philippines, banana, maize, peppers and sweet potatoes are grown together.
Precision farming	Farmers use global positioning (GPS) technology involving satellites and sensors on the ground and intensive information management tools to understand variations in resource conditions within fields. They use this information to more precisely apply fertilizers and other inputs and to more accurately predict crop yields.
Predator habitats	Habitats can be provided for the natural predators of pests. E.g. hedgerows, beetle banks
Purse seining	a net is cast around a shoal of fish, drawn tight then pulled in. It is possible to selectively catch particular species. E.g. tuna, mackerel, sardines,
Quarantine	A restraint on importation of certain animals or plants from areas where pests or contagious diseases are endemic — or isolation of animals or plants suspected of carrying pests or diseases — to prevent the spread of those pests and diseases.
Quota	A limit imposed by governments on the quantity of goods produced or purchased.
Rill erosion	An erosion process in which numerous small channels, typically a few inches deep, are formed. It occurs mainly on recently cultivated soils or on recent cuts and fills.
Riparian buffer	A strip of vegetation along the bank of a body of water which slows the rate of flow of runoff from adjoining uplands, causing sediment and other materials to fall out onto the land before the runoff enters and pollutes the body of water.
Rodenticide	A pesticide used to destroy, control, or deter mice and rats or other rodent pests from damaging food, crops,
Sedimentation	The depositing of eroded soil at some other location, generally in the bed of a stream, river or lake. Sediment may carry with it pesticides and nutrients attached to the soil. Sedimentation is the single largest source of nonpoint pollution.
Seed bank	A facility used for the preservation and dissemination of seed, particularly varieties that are not in commercial use and that may be threatened with extinction.
Set-aside	A programme (not used since the late 1970s) under which farmers are required to set aside a certain percentage of their total planted acreage and devote this land to approved conservation uses (such as grasses, legumes, and small grain which is not allowed to mature) in order to be eligible for grants- EU CAP policy.
Sharecropper	A tenant farmer who receives a share of the crops, livestock, or livestock products from the landowner, who in turn may extend credit to and supervises the tenant. The tenant generally supplies only labour.
Sheet erosion	The removal of a thin, relatively uniform layer of soil from the land surface caused by runoff.
Shelterbelt	A plant barrier of trees, shrubs, or other approved perennial vegetation designed to reduce wind erosion. AKA windbreak.
Silage	Prepared by chopping green forage (grass, legumes, field corn, etc.) into an airtight chamber, where it is compressed to exclude air and undergoes an acid fermentation that retards spoilage. Contains about 65 percent moisture. Fed to animals in winter.
Silviculture	A branch of forestry dealing with the development and care of forests.
Soil solarization	Fumigating and warming soil by covering it with black plastic. This is an alternative pest control technique
Solid waste	Non-liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from municipal rubbish to industrial wastes that contain complex and sometimes hazardous substances. Solid wastes also include sewage sludge, agricultural refuse, demolition wastes, and mining residues. Technically, solid waste also refers to liquids and gases in containers.
Specialty crops	Usually refers to crops covered by marketing orders that generally are not fruits or vegetables. Specialty crops have included almonds, heroine poppies, walnuts, spearmint oil, hops, dates, raisins, and prunes.
Species	Species represent the lowest and most important of the primary groupings used in classifying plants, animals, and microorganisms. While no single definition applies to all organisms, biologists rely principally on (1) morphological and genetic similarities and (2), for sexually reproducing organisms, the capability of interbreeding with one another but not other groups. If different species do interbreed, the offspring, if any, are often sterile.
Staple	A commodity that is widely and regularly produced and consumed e.g. wheat, rice, potatoes
Stocking rate	The number of specific kinds and classes of livestock grazing or using a unit of land for a specified time. Not the same as carrying capacity.
Strip cropping	Growing crops in a systematic arrangement of strips or bands, usually parallel to the land’s contour, that serve as barriers to wind and water erosion. By planting different crops in neighbouring long narrow fields with different planting and harvesting times means the field is never completely exposed to wind and rain.
Stubble mulching	Leaving the stubble or crop residue essentially in place on the land as a surface cover during a fallow period. Stubble-mulching can prevent erosion from wind or water and conserve soil moisture.
Subsistence farm	A low-income farm where the emphasis is on production for use of the operator and the operator's family rather than for sale.
Surplus	The amount by which available supplies are greater than the quantity that will bring producers an adequate income.
Sustainable Agriculture	A systematic approach to agriculture that focuses on ensuring the long-term productivity of human and natural resources for meeting food and fibre needs.
Sustainable development	Development pursued in a manner that does not damage or deplete the human or physical environment and that ensures through good management that resources will be available for use indefinitely.
Sustained yield	An output of renewable resources that does not impair the productivity of the resource; it implies a balance between harvesting and incremental growth or replenishment.
Terminator seeds	A descriptive term used by some for seeds that have been genetically engineered to produce a crop whose first generation produces sterile seeds, thus preventing a second generation from being grown from seeds saved from the first. Opponents are concerned that the technology could have harmful environmental and public health effects and argue that it would have an inequitable impact on farmers in developing countries who rely on saved seed for replanting and for developing locally adapted varieties.
Terrace	An embankment, ridge, or levelled strip constructed across sloping soils on the contour, or at right angle to the slope. The terrace intercepts surface runoff so that it can soak into the soil or flow slowly to a prepared outlet, decreasing rates of soil erosion.
Trade barriers	Restricting imports can protect national production but can inhibit the development of agricultural activities in other countries, such as LEDCs that could have benefited economically from increased exports.
Trawling	pulling a bag-shaped net through the sea is an unselective method and can catch a wide variety of species, including non-target species (by-catch). Trawling on the seabed can also cause great physical damage e.g. to coral, seaweed beds. Midwater trawls have lower by-catch but can kill some non-target organisms e.g. porpoises caught in bass trawls
Trickle irrigation	AKA drip irrigation - Method in which water drips to the soil from perforated tubes or emitters. This irrigation technology is water conserving compared to flooding, furrows, and sprinklers.
Turgidity	Turgor Pressure or turgidity is the main pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall in plant cells. This force gives the plant rigidity, and keeps it erect. Without water plants wilt.
Universal soil loss equation	USLE Is a formula that can be used to estimate the rate of soil erosion based on the effect of a range of climatic, edaphic and land use factors. A = R x K x L x S x C x P Where: A = the rate of erosion R = rainfall erosivity factor K = soil erodibility factor L = slope length factor S = slope gradient factor C = cropping management factor P = erosion prevention factor
Vegetative cover	Perennial grasses, legumes, or shrubs with an expected lifespan of 5 years, or trees.
Viticulture	The science and practice of growing grapes.
Windbreak	A living barrier that usually includes several rows of trees, and perhaps shrubs, located upwind of a farm, field, feedlot or other area and intended to reduce wind velocities. Windbreaks, AKA shelterbelts, can reduce wind erosion, conserve energy or moisture, control snow accumulations, and provide shelter for livestock or wildlife
Wind erosion -	The detachment and transportation of soil by wind. Wind erosion is a cropland management concern in the USA Plains states.
World Bank	A multilateral economic development institution established in 1945 to extend loans and technical assistance for development projects in developing countries. It is formally referred to as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
World Food Programme	(WFP) - A UN agency that contributes commodities, services, and cash to developing countries to meet emergency food needs or to carry out economic and social development projects using food or local currencies generated from the sale of food aid commodities.
World Trade Organization	(WTO) - The international organization established by the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations to oversee implementation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Yield	The number of or Kg that a farmer harvests per hectare.
Zero tolerance	In food safety policy, a "zero tolerance" standard generally means that if a potentially dangerous substance (whether microbiological, chemical, or other) is present in or on a product, that product will be considered adulterated and unfit for human consumption.

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