Positivist theory of crime

Theories which existed before positivist theory of crime were phrenology and physiognomy theories. Johann Lavater, the physiognomist, thought that the shape of the skull and some facial features had an impact on a human behavior and actions. Later,  positivist theorist of crime Cesare Lombroso took Lavater’s ideas and began exploring other physical traits of a body. Lombroso, the criminal anthropologist, not only researched the facial features and the shape of the skull, but social conditions of individual like unemployment and medical history of illnesses. He compared a large number of criminals and non-criminals using human physical traits like: ear size, hair length and other. Goring, the main criticist of Lombroso, conducted the research on crime heredity, but didn’t find any differences in facial features or other human physical traits between prison inmates, asylum inhabitants and non-criminals. The only physical difference Goring found between an experimental and control group was the significant dissimilarity in body weight and stature. The criminals in Goring’s research tends to have the lower weight and small stature. Positivist's theorists of crime argued that human behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by individual differences and biological traits. In short, terms, what drives people towards crime is not a matter of free-will. The positivist crime theorist and criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso made attempts to scientifically prove his thesis that criminal offenders were physically different from  non-offenders. Lombroso stated that atavistic features are more akin to savages and criminal offenders. This view was held by many biological positivists. Positivist theory of crime presumed that scientific study of criminal behavior should find the"causes" of such behavior. They also believed that the causes of crime are beyond the control of the individual. Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic. Lombroso was influenced by Darwinian principles of evolution and used these ideas to support a thesis on inferiority of criminals. Positivist theory of crime implemented the idea of social Darwinism that individuals or groups develop certain physical and psychological attributes, which allow them to function more efficiently in the social and natural environment. We can object to positivist theories of crime that the theories never accepted the idea about the equality of gender roles. Lombroso thought that males were more lenient to a crime, because they were more masculine that females in general. Italian historian Renzo Villa thinks that Lombroso's attempt to identify signs of criminality using biological traits are an inevitable result and part of the contextual development of nineteenth-century penal science and medicine. The positivist theory of crime understanding  was limited on the external appearance or phenotype properties as the way to identify the physical characteristics, which were present in criminal approach of phrenology.

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Critical criminology/Marxist criminology

 Critical criminology/Marxist criminology
critical theories of crime, radical criminology marxist, social radical theories of crime causation


Critical criminology is both theory and school of criminology. Critical theory of crime points that crime is defined by the ruling class The ruling class represents a small number of people (the most wealthy money lenders) who indirectly or directly proscribes the crimes. Proscribing crimes is a way how the ruling class or an elite keeps the majority under control. Critical theory of criminology incorporates Marxist conflict theories and other social radical theories.

The critical theory of criminology sets answers on why and how a criminality becomes the product of society. Their answers are focused on various distributions of wealth and power in the society. People who have greater powers define the rules on "what is a crime" and "what is not". People commit crimes, because they disagree with those rules. Powerful elites create the rules to sustain their way of life and system of values. According to this theory, the criminality is the way how powerless people express their disagreement with those values and keep their respect and dignity.


Introduction to criminology problems when defining criminology

Critical school of criminology stresses out unequal distribution of wealth and power in the society. Inequality among people will eventually lead to crime. Marxists criticize the capitalism and "free" market economy, because such system creates impoverishment of many.

Marxist theories are right in terms that inequality exists among people and that opportunities are obscure for non-wealthy. Critics of critical theories argue that critical theories have marked crime as a political category, but have excluded many other factors.

Critical criminology takes the sociological approach to crime Critics of the sociological approach to crime argue that sociological theories are too narrow in understanding crime causation.

Sociological theories of crime causation can be divided into two groups of theories:

  1. sociological theories based on the factors relatively independent of social interactions and

  2. sociological theories based on the factors which are results of social interaction and social dynamics.

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Demonology in criminology

Demonology in criminology

crime demonology, demonological theory of crime causation, forensic demonology

There are many myths, stories and legends that we know about. They may be the product of our imagination or be well crafted by our creative mind. Or maybe not? Demonology is a very old discipline which developed it self out of theology. Existence of demons (evil beings) only confirms a fact that God exists.

Demonology is unfortunately a borderline science. This essentially means that modern science will never accept any explanation that involves non-material or spiritual forms of evidence. Officially, any crime that involves demonic possessions may be qualified as an insanity. Psychiatrists are those who at a request of  the Court make a diagnosis and prognosis about a persons sanity or insanity. Modern science tends to rationally and materially explains connections of crime and demonic possessions. Main reasons are lawmaker requests for a legal form of evidence. Evidence can be statements of witnesses, victims or perpetrators. Those statements get theirs form of evidence in court records and usually are backed by consistencies with material and circumstantial evidence or facts as well as with high credibility of persons who gave those statements.

The relation between science and demonology is best described as a "hot ice." Ice can't be hot, and science can't accept spiritual explanations.


Many police officers and crime investigators may have encountered perpetrators who have claimed that they committed their crimes under some demonic influences. Perpetrators may claim, but none of them produced  any physical evidence. It is very odd to have two accepted scientific disciplines like theology and forensic sciences claiming the opposite.

Looking not very far into history we should take a better look at a Roman and  later perfected Spanish inquisition. Roman inquisition was established in 1232 by the Pope, and the main task of the inquisition was to rout out heresy. Some of the most advanced medieval thinkers have found out that they can use inquisition to acquire lands of their adversaries, friends or neighbors. Inquisition was very unfair in terms of judicial proceedings. People who were under suspicion had an obligation to produce evidence and here was a possibility to indefinitely leave them under suspicion. This means that besides of "guilty"or "not guilty"sentences, guilty"sentences there was a possibility to stop individual inquisition proceeding. A person wouldn't know when the inquisition would start again.

Criminology as a science looks out on these matters from a cultural and a legal perspective. The legal perspective includes forensic psychiatry and psychology, while the cultural perspective includes systems of values of some ethnic group or nation. For an example, there are still some ritual practices among  the tribes on the African continent that allow throwing of the first born male children to the pigs. Looking on it from our perspective, this is naturally a crime, but among those tribes this is a tradition. Systems of values are also different in organizations like Cosa Nostra, narcotic cartels or other criminal organizations. While some behaviors are desirable in that kind of organization, they are banned or marked red by a "normal society."

Criminology as a science was established at second half of 19th century. However, interest to research crime existed in earlier times of history. Until criminology became an autonomous science, crime was researched from the theological, metaphysical, legal (nomotechnical), sociological, psychological, anthropological, psychiatric (medical)or biological standpoint. Development of criminology theory starts with demonology around 5500 BC. According to some theorists, the first school of criminology was the demonological school of criminology.

"People commit crimes under demonic or evil influences."

Demonological explanation of crime was based on the mixture of common logic and religious beliefs. Similar attempts to explain human behavior were made by astrologists. Development of astrology starts around 3500 BC. The positions of heavenly bodies such as constellations and planets affect human behavior. In 13th century theology attempted to explain crime in similar fashion as demonology did before the theology. Introduction of the inquisition enabled clerics to be investigators, prosecutors and judges at a same time.

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Italian classicist Cesare Beccaria

Italian classicist Cesare Beccaria

beccaria contribution to criminology, beccaria theory, classical crime causation

Cesare Beccaria was an Italian classical criminologist. Beccaria was the most advanced thinker of his time. Beccaria was born in Milan, but studied in Parma (Tuscany/Italy). In 1764, he publicizes his essay "On crimes and punishments" showing his views how the medieval criminal justice system should reform itself.  Cesare Beccaria was an Italian nobleman and also a doctor of criminal law. Beccaria was influenced by the French encyclopedic movement and accepted Montesquieu's and J.J. Rousseau's teachings. Some of Beccaria's principles are even accepted today. Unfortunately, Cesare Beccaria's  principle of property threshold regarding the fines wasn't very welcomed. Cesare Beccaria was the first who thought about it that fines should be proportionally applied according to the property threshold of the perpetrator, i.e. SES (socio-economic status). Beccaria stated that main reason for proportionality was in social responsibility.

                                                                    
Being rich isn't rule, but an exception. The more people are rich. The higher are theirs  social responsibilities. Wealthy people also enjoy higher social standing, so it is an imperative for the wealthy to provide industrial production capacity and infrastructure (non-service sector) that those with lesser social standing can earn their wages, and the wealthy can keep their profits.

Then again, financial and monetary sector is very different today, than it was back then. Even with best efforts to invest in production industry, it cannot be compared with high yield investment profits in bogus non promissory, but legal debt based payment instruments. Profits in the production sector are about 7%, while in money lending and investment businesses they are about 70% trough the system of the credit, currency issuance and fractional banking scheme.

Unfortunately, Beccaria didn't lived in a corporate world either or in the time when the banks of issue legally counterfeited money. Also Beccaria didn't lived in the world where the rich used charity funds for tax exemptions and gave  their pennies to the poor.


Principles that Beccaria found most important were:


1.  proportionality of fines compared to social economic status
2.  absolute rule of law (without extensive judicial sentencing practice or court casinos)
3.  laws are condition of freedoms

4.  just society is based upon fair sentences
5.  concept of indeterminism
6.  advocated against use of death penalty
7.  concept of the free will

Differences in theoretical approaches between classical  and positivist criminology are:

Classical criminology uses philosophy and logic to explain a crime. Classical criminology was influenced by philosophical thinking's of Rousseau, Voltaire, Feurebach, Kant, Hegel and Bacon. Crime is a logical syllogism or just a simple choice. Classicist focus on crime, but not on the perpetrator of crime.

Beccaria criticized against of use of torture and secret judicial proceedings. He also advocated for abolition of the death penalty, while Bentham worked on the systematic codification of criminal law.  Jeremy Bentham was an advocate against of the excessive severity used in punishments of perpetrators, which were prescribed in the criminal laws of his time. Some of Bentham's ideas were implemented into laws. Bentham teachings have laid the groundwork for substantial legal reforms, and were spread by Bentham’s followers.

Lombroso believed that the true criminal can be identified simply by observation of certain physical traits such as a long lower jaw, asymmetric cranium, and other. Positivist use available scientific methods of that time such as anthropometric measuring, phrenological measuring, intuitive thinking, retrospective interview about prison inmates or asylum inhabitants and many other methods. They focus its research on the criminal. Theory of a born criminal was created by Cesare Lombroso largely thanks to his anthropometric and phrenological researches, which brought him to false conclusions. Even today scientists in analyzing and constructing crime theory can make mistakes like Lombroso.

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Criminological theories and crime causation

Criminological theories and crime causation

biological theories of crime causation, classical theory of crime causation, crime causation theory, social theories of crime, theories of crime causation

Historical overview of crime causation

Antique philosophy

In 4th Century BC Aristotle offers a philosophical standpoint on crime causation. Aristotle stated that the crime is poverty related. He described the poverty as a mother of all revolutions and crimes.

Medieval philosophy

In 17th Century Francis Bacon stated that criminality will depend on social situations. He described his standpoint in this sentence: "Opportunity makes a thief." Bacon pointed out that human behavior will depend on situations.

French renaissance philosophy

In 18th century encyclopedists Voltaire and Rousseau introduce the concept of free will. Crime is the same as hedonistic behavior and failure to fulfill the social contract obligations.

Classical criminology

Classical theory of crime explains that crime is a product of believes that benefits of committing crimes are far greater. People opt in decisions making between two scenarios A and B. A scenario is:  a "crime isn't profitable because you will get caught" and B scenario presents certainty in decision making "that you will never get caught". Most of the criminals think they'll never get caught.

Main principles of classical school of criminology were:

1. Crime is a rational choice, and most people are capable to commit crimes.

2. People will commit a crime after they have compared potential costs and benefits of such actions.

3. Most of the people fear punishment, and the certainty, severity and speed of punishment will have a impact on the level of crime.

4. Punishment needs to fit a crime and individual differences of perpetrators shouldn't have a n influence on the punishment.

5. The criminal justice system needs to be predictable, while laws and punishments must be known to public.

Proportionality in criminology means that crime must fit a crime. The first model of proportionality in applying punishments was lex taliionis or law of retaliation.

Crime is a behavioral human characteristic and a choice.

Positivist criminology

Positivist school of criminology (Italian anthropological school of criminology) tried to fully explain the crime causation using determinism. Italian anthropological school of criminology uses biological determinism or evolutionary atavism. The atavism is an evolutionary remnant which can be found on 33 % of the people who have failed to socially and genetically evolve. They also kept some stigmata, which makes them identifiable. Some theorists claim that Lombroso never was a biological determinist. This is not true.

Crime is inherited and some people are born to be criminals.

Lombroso's study of criminology

Sociological school of criminology stated that crime is a result of multiple factors, which can be divided into biological, psychological and social factors. Today, the new criminology rejects eclectic or multi-factor theories (mixed theories), and tends to identify those factors instead of generalizing or claiming those factors aren't identifiable.

Crime is a result of social factors and conditions that affect human behavior.

 Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is a term first time utilized by the Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Hebert Spencer was an English Victorian philosopher and a pseudo-sociologist who thought that Darwin's theory of evolution can be equally applied on the society. Otherwise, the most successful and wealthiest people are product of social evolution. They evolved through the process of natural selection and stood at a top of the society using superior intelligence and experience.

Criminals are people who are stupid enough to get caught.

Crime and intelligence connection

Social Darwinism is a fraudulent theoretical construct fully debunked by the historian Richard Hofstadter.

Psychological theories of crime causation.

Psychology and crime causation

Psychological theories were quite popular at the turn of 20th century. Most popular psychological theory of crime causation was psychoanalytical theory. Psychoanalytical theory of crime causation was based on the notion that hidden unconscious motives affect human behavior.

Social learning theory

The theory was developed by A. Bandura in 1973 Bandura believed that aggressive behavior is largely learned, but effects of biological factors shouldn't be excluded. Social learning can be direct or indirect. Direct social learning is the result of positive or negative effects on behavior i.e. result of rewards or punishments. When applying punishment, excessive use of aggression should be avoided. Corporal punishments are extreme form of negative behavior, because child can develop a negative association between the punishment and his parents. Indirect social learning is based on a perception of other people's behavior as desirable or non-desirable.

Crime is a result of social learning.

Theory of frustration aggressiveness

 Frustration is one of the possible causes of crime. Frustration is a psychological state of discomfort due to the inability to achieve certain goals or find solutions for problems. Inability to graduate is often a source of frustration among juvenile delinquents. This theory has emerged in 1939 as a result of the work of John Dollard and his colleagues from Yale University. According to the theory, frustration always leads to aggression and every aggression is the result of frustration. Later research led to the conclusion that moderate frustration does not necessarily lead to aggression. In 1974 Harris conducted the experiment and found when someone is closer to achieving its goal an obstacle to his imaginary target causes more frustration.

Berkowitz believed that frustration creates a will to aggressively respond with anger, and that does not always result with aggressive behavior. An odd that aggression will occur as a result of frustration depends on a large number of specific conditions and circumstances.

Not every frustration will result with aggression nor every aggression will match legal description of crime or be reported as a crime to authorities. Frustration can be cause of crime.

Psychoanalytical theory

Psychoanalysts believe that man is a cannibalistic wild creature in its beginning, which will form in a mature and responsible person trough a process of socialization. Psychoanalytical theory can be applied in the sense that the process of socialization has a significant role in the formation of our conscience. Psychoanalytic theory also holds that people are not always aware of motives of their behavior. Motives are sometimes hidden in "Id" (subconsciousness) and are often related with conflicts from our childhood.

Crime can be caused by a lack of ability to control "Id".

Psychological theories are relative, difficult and almost impossible to test.

Sociology and crime causation

Theory of social anomie

Basic concept of social anomie is an enormous gap between the desires of the individual and its real capabilities to satisfy those desires. When an individual is the one who gives, or who carries out its social obligations in accordance with his social role, and the social environment does not give any feedback on his conduct this will result in the alienation of the individual. To the individuals it will not be clear why he is doing socially useful activities, when he knows he could opt for another model of behavior that is apparently easier and does not require any effort (e.g. it is easier to steal than to work). The process of social interaction is based on reciprocity of care, attention and trust. Both sides give something in the interaction, but also receive from the whole process of social interaction.

Social anomie also happens when old rules or values are no longer relevant and new values or rules are in direct conflict with old rules and values.

Differential association theory was a theory developed by E. Sutherland. In short terms, crime is a result of social learning by engaging in deviant behaviors by those with whom we socially interact.

Critical, Marxist and social radical theories of crime

Biological theories of crime causation

Some genetic theorists believed that chromosome aberrations may be the cause of crime. These theories stated that people with XYY chromosome syndrome or the so-called "macho men" (who have an extra Y chromosome) are predisposed to commit crimes. Research conducted in the Scottish prison found 3% of inmates who have XYY chromosomal aberration. Otherwise, such persons are present in the general population, with a share of 0.2%. These claims are completely unjustified and meaningless if we take into account the low proportion of such persons in the general population.

Another study on crime held that hormones have an important impact on the existence of aggression. Based on research conducted on animals it was found that elevated  levels of hormone in women and men affect the emergence of aggressive behavior. These studies mainly dealt with the influence of testosterone on aggressive behavior, and found that higher levels of testosterone affect the occurrence of aggressive behavior. Elevated testosterone levels will affect the increase in aggressive behavior, while subtracting testosterone levels will act to reduce aggressive behavior.

The studies that have dealt with studying the brain tried to relate the aggressiveness and some brain areas, and sought to establish the existence of brain center's that regulate aggression. They concluded that the temporal lobe and some sub-cortical brain areas are responsible for the regulation of aggressive behavior.

Experiments conducted on animals showed that stimulation of specific areas can affect the development of aggressive behavior, but also to condition the animals to complete obedience. In 1969 Delgado conducted experiments on animals using a radio receiver implanted in the brain to control the aggressiveness of animals stimulating their limbic system, i.e. the hypothalamus. Delgado found that regardless of cortical stimulation, the animal will behave depending on environmental conditions. Although the chemical processes can artificially induce and encourage the aggressive behavior, it is not clear what affects the hormone to stimulate the hypothalamus to act differently.

According to biological theories, punishment will not affect deterring the individual from the crime, because the person (criminal) has some inherited remnant, stigmata etc. Biological theories of crime causation were the first theories where scientific methodology was used.

Which theory of crime causation is more correct?

Theories are just hypothesis waiting to be debunked. Theories are far from a reality. Every crime is the unique story. Theories may be partially correct, but in reality they are product of a human tendency to generalize, to add attributes, to categorize or to label someone’s behavior. Otherwise, it is an effort made to understand something that we do not understand as well as the tendency to find some general meaning that can be equally applied on the same or similar cases.

Theories are result of process how we are taught to think, understand or to make something simple.

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Introduction to criminology- problems when defining criminology

Introduction to criminology- problems when defining criminology

multidisciplinary criminology perspective, multidisciplinary theory of crime causation, types of criminology

Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary nature of criminology makes much difficulty in attempts to set a final and conclusive definition of criminology. Criminology encompasses the knowledge of various sciences, which all together make valuable contributions to criminology. Problems in defining criminology come out of different theoretical standpoints. Sociologists tend to define criminology from their theoretical angle as well as do law theorists, psychologists, biologists, philosophers, anthropologists, social pedagogues and many other theorists. Every theorist gives us their own definition of criminology, so when defining criminology it is best to define it according to objects of research.

Why is criminology an interdisciplinary science? Many scientific fields or specialized disciplines are incorporated into criminology. Methods and knowledge's of psychology, sociology, philosophy and criminal justice are part of criminology. Criminology uses all available knowledge's which are provided by these sciences. Crimes are already researched by other sciences and criminology presents a full  integration of all knowledge's using the own methodology which is adapted to the specific research object.

Criminology Today: An Integrative Introduction (5th Edition)

Best definition of criminology describes the criminology as a social empirical science. Main objects of research in criminology are  the crimes, victims, criminals, social environment, criminality in general, penal treatment of delinquents, behavioral prognosis, types and methods of crime control. Crime is an individual act, while criminality as a term includes all crimes. Objects of research in criminology are also asocial behaviors (predelinquent phases) and asocial persons.

There are many areas of research in criminology. One of those fields of study is the victimology. Victimology is relatively a very young scientific field which studies victim relations with the criminal, victim contribution to crime causality, victim rehabilitation, effects of secondary victimization trough criminal Court processes, report studies (victim willingness to report the crime) etc. Victimology also focuses upon theory concepts how to prevent future victimization and how to increase the number of crime reports against the criminals.

Most of the criminological disciplines and specialized fields focus upon crime causation, while other efforts are pointed on research of various forms of crimes. Police officers or crime investigators are usually focused on investigation of certain types of crimes like sexual offenses, murders, thefts or other forms of crime. They have received adequate training and theoretical knowledge, which make them grand masters of their profession after five years of work in that field.

Police officer is some sort of a  medical doctor, who has to discover and to identify social illnesses, which affected the society, and to find appropriate treatment, which of course is mirrored in effective, swift and just criminal investigation procedures, the lawful collection of evidence and  the professional objectivity.

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crime and constitution

Crimes which are defined by the Constitution

crime and constitution

Crime and the Constitution


Constitution is a set of principals, so there aren't actually any crimes, which are defined by the Constitution. Most of the modern constitutions are more like  the guidelines for all lawmakers and  governments when passing certain acts into laws. Laws must be based upon the Constitution, and theoretically cannot exceed the boundaries set by the Constitution except in the case when those laws are passed in legislative bodies as organic laws. Constitution is a fundamental document and a source upon which the governments receive their power. The Constitution is also an agreement between citizens and people who are selected.


The fifth amendment of United States Constitution mentions word "infamous" in reference to crimes. This reference is made on "crimen falsi."


"Crimen falsi in the civil law is defined as the crime of falsifying; by writing, by forgery of a legal document, by falsely testifying, by perjury, by counterfeiting public money, by counterfeiting public seals or other deceitful practices."


"Crimen falsi at common law is defined as any crime, which may injuriously affect the administration of justice by the introduction of falsehood and fraud."


Crimes are proscribed by the Penal Codes, which are more or less based on the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.


Black's law dictionary provides the definition of the Constitution in American law as"the written instrument agreed upon by the people of the Union or of a particular state, as the absolute rule of action and decision for all departments and officers of the government in respect to all the points covered by it, which must control until it shall be changed by the authority who established it, and in opposition to which any act or ordinance of any such department or officer is null and void. Cooley, Const. Lim. 3"

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Connection between crime and intelligence

Connection between crime and intelligence

crime and intelligence, link between crime and intelligence, relation of crime and intelligence

Crime and intelligence

Many theorists have tried to find a clear connection between crime and intelligence. Unfortunately, connection between crime and intelligence isn't clear when the experiment is well controlled, and most of the factors are identifiable. It is necessary to point out that crime is a social phenomenon and in most cases is defined by laws, while intelligence is a human ability determined by psychological instruments, i.e. tests (psychometric theory).
Problems when researching crime and intelligence
1. The definition of crime changes geographically.
2. There are at least 20 definitions of intelligence and every definition of intelligence is somewhat different. Some theorists perceive intelligence as an ability that is measured by tests, other theorists as a form of holistic and complex ability or set of identifiable and unidentifiable abilities.

Research on intelligence and delinquency identified two areas of study. The first area was related to the assessment of how intelligence affects the development of criminal career. Second area of research related to the assessment on how low IQ influences on the committing of crimes. 

Research of crime and intelligence  
 
Many researchers believe that the cause of crime is sociological factors such as poverty or ethnicity, while other researchers stress the importance of intellectual functioning. Some studies explain that the low intelligence is directly associated with poor performance in school, business achievements, social adaptation and integration, and thus indirectly with delinquency.
Richard Dugdale first showed interest to research a connection between crime and intelligence. In 1877,  he published the study of Jukes family tree i.e. "pedigree family tree study" where he analyzed available data on the Jukes family members in past 200 years. The Jukes were very known New York family at that time. Dugdale's goal was to establish a connection between low intelligence and criminal genesis. Conclusion of his study was that members of Jukes family were mostly criminals, degenerates, prostitutes or asocial persons. This study had an impact on forming of public opinion, hostile stance towards such a persons and call for action to eliminate persons like Jukes from the society. This was the turning point for development of Eugenics Movement.
Howard H. Goddard analyzed the Kalikaks family tree in 1912 in the institution for feeble-minded persons in New Jersey. Goddard analyzed the data on six generations of Kalikak's family and came to the conclusion that in case of Kalikaks family members, mental retardation is inherited. To support his claims Goddard used G. Mendel's genetic laws to explain the role of recessive genes and their effects on inheritance of mental retardation. According to Goddard chances for Kalikaks family members to suffer from mental retardation were 3:1. Goddard's goal in the Kalikaks family tree study was to prove that mental retardation is inherited. Goddard personally thought that mental retardation was one of the possible causes of crime and ascertained that 97 % of prostitutes, 80 % of tramps, 70% of prison inmates and 50 % of poor was feeble minded at that time.
In 1919 Goring estimated that there are 10-20% of people among grown-up delinquents who have bellowed average intelligence. In his assessment Goring didn't use any tests, but briefly estimated the percentage based on his experience. Goring used the publication of Royal Commission for England and Wales from 1908th. that determined 0,5 % of feeble-minded persons in England and Wales as control results. According to the results of Royal Commission for England and Wales, 10% of prison inmates was feeble-minded. Goring was radical in his ideas and thought that mental retardation is adequate enough to replace Lombroso's biological substrates and a way to identify future criminals.

In 1950's Mannheim found that previous studies were wrong in an attempt to present the mental retardation as  a cause of crime.

In 1970 Gibson and West made an analysis of intelligence tests. Research results showed that the delinquents achieved lower results on verbal and non-verbal intelligence sub tests.
In 1972 Wolfgang, Figlio and Sellin analyzed the results of intelligence tests of 9945 participants. Delinquent subgroup had 5 -10 points less than the non-delinquent group. On the same sample, Wolfgang and his associates compared the crime perpetrators and crime recidivists. A result of research showed the difference in IQ by an average of 8.1 points for the whites and 10.6 points for the blacks. The crime perpetrators achieved better results on intelligence tests than crime recidivists. In 1990, Moffitt made a research on the sample that consisted of 536 girls and boys and found an average difference of 8 points in IQ scores between delinquents and non-delinquents. The difference in IQ scores between crime perpetrators and crime recidivists was 17 points. In Moffitt's research, delinquents and crime recidivists achieved lower IQ scores than non-delinquents.

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Biological theories of crime causation in criminology

Biological theories of crime causation in criminology

biosocial theories of crime, social environment theories

Biological theories of crime causation tried to find casualties who affect human behavior and actions. Many scientific disciplines such as psychology, political sciences, criminal law, sociology and biology contribute to criminology. Criminology is the integration of these knowledge's that every science has about deviant, forbidden, unmoral and abnormal acts. Like many other social sciences, criminology deals with a probability and probability is tested trough statistical analysis and other methods. Criminology studies crimes, criminals, forms of criminal behavior, the possible causes of crime, social environment, victims and the social reaction on criminal acts. Areas of criminological studies can be: juvenile delinquency, penology, victimology, etiology, phenomenology, criminal prophylaxis, criminal prognosis, clinical studies, anti-delinquent policy and other. Criminal justice and theoretical criminology share many research interests and have well developed relations as scientific disciplines.

 

 Classification of theoretical criminology

Theories are the product of certain historical or cultural context. Valid elements of theory are contextualized again in a new theory. Theories are distant from practice, because the relations between practice and theory is often disregarded. Therefore, theory sometimes becomes a set of raw facts without any applicability.

Classification of applied criminology

Interests to research crime existed throughout history. Throughout history, crime was researched as a dynamic social phenomenon. In short, terms, crime was a relative term, because the views on crime have changed, and what was considered as a crime in the past, today perhaps is not a crime. For an example, homosexuality was a crime in not so far history.

Early biological theories of crime tried to establish a connection between physical deformity, disability and ugliness with crime, while borderline scientific disciplines such as physiognomy attempted to establish a link between facial features, personality and crime. Explanation of biological theories of crime favors biological traits as a dominant factor that will affect  human behavior and actions.

"Mens sana in corpore sano."

Throughout medieval times, physical deformities such as moles, warts and third nipples were proof of demonic possession. It was quite easy and suitable to condemn ugly persons to death.

To be ugly has fallen out of favor in medieval times.

Biosocial theories of crime causation stress out importance of biochemical conditions, genetic code, neurological conditions and influences of social environment on the behavior. Combined effect of personal biological traits and social environment will result in conformity with social norms or with crime. Other biosocial theorists point out the influence of low levels of chemical nutrients and minerals on criminal behavior. Lack of nutrients and minerals has an impact on physical growth, cognitive and intellectual development. Researches conducted by biosocial theorist show that excessively high or low levels of some chemicals and minerals such as sodium, calcium, amino-acids and others could lead to cognitive dysfunctionality, loss of memory, depression or manic behavior. Other researches find out that excessive intake of metals like iron and manganese can lead to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and neurological dysfunctions. It is believed that those neurological conditions are linked with criminal behavior.

Evolutionary theories of crime

Modern evolutionary criminologists base their arguments on the work of Charles Darwin. According to today's evolutionary criminologists, crime is a result of the maladaptive process on the social environment. Evolutionary criminological concept wasn't very welcomed by mainstream (positivist) criminologists, but some anthropologist and psychologists still pursue the possibility that crime is a form of an adaptive trait.

Neuroscience and explanations of crime

Rapid development of neuroscience has brought to form of new theories of crime. Neuroscientists point out that crime is a psychopathological or psychological disorder.

Physiological theories of crime are sometimes categorized as psychological theories or biological theories.

William Sheldon, American psychologist in 1949 developed theory of somatotypes. Sheldon made the classification of body types on:
- ectomorphs,
- mesomorphs and
- endomorphs.

Based on the physical constitution, Sheldon found psychological and personality traits, which are characteristic for every of somatotypes. According to Sheldon, ectomorphs are highly predispositioned to commit a crime.

Similar classification of somatotypes was developed by German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer in 1921. Kretschmer's classification system introduced three body types:

- asthenic / leptosomic,
- athletic
- and pyknic.

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Corporate crime - water fluoridation

Corporate crime - water fluoridation

water fluoridation and corporate crimes


Studies made in 1950's show that fluoride is beneficial for your teeth. Study was made by Dr. Harold Hodge, who was a respectable member of scientific community. Later, it was found that he was involved in experiments injecting radioactive plutonium in test subjects at University of Rochester in November 1945 Dr. Harold Hodge took his part in Manhattan project.

More information's can be found in the book: "The Plutonium files: America's secret medical experiments in the Cold War" by Eileen Welsome.

Test subjects who were injected with plutonium were:

1. Edna Schultz Carlton "HP-3" November 27, 1945

2. Jean Daigneault "HP-4" November 27, 1945

3. Paul Gallinger "HP-5" November 30, 1945

                                    4. Daniel Nelson, HP-10" July 16,1946

                                    5. and others

Fluoride was used in atomic bomb production, and Dr. Harold Hodge was a chief toxicologist in Manhattan project. Atomic bomb production required large quantities of fluorides. The copy of declassified study made by University of Rochester "Atomic energy project" clearly shows that fluoride is a highly toxic component. Atomic energy commission as well as other contractors were playing a major role in the cover-up and now face lawsuits.

Criminological methods for etiological study of crime

Another study was made by Gerald J. Cox from the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research at Pittsburgh Philadelphia. Gerald J. Cox was asked by Francis C. Freary to research fluoride pollution effects caused by Aluminum Plant. Francis C. Freary was a Director of Aluminum Plant Laboratory. He suggested to Gerald C. Cox to investigate dental effects of sodium fluoride, what is totally absurd? Actually, Francis C. Freary was more interested how to dispose sodium fluoride. At that time, it was very expensive to dispose sodium fluoride. Obviously, the fastest and fewer expensive way was a trough public water supply.
In 2004 Christopher Bryson published a book "The fluoride deception" after 10 years of researching facts about fluorides. Mellon Institute was one of the supporters of asbestos usage. They claimed that mesohyloma is caused by something other than asbestos.
Fluorides airborne have done more damage than any other air pollutant.
Dr. Edward Groth claims that fluoride is responsible for more health damage than all 20 monitored air pollutant combined.
Denora Halloween pollution incident in Pennsylvania is the most notorious air pollution incident in history of USA, which caused 19 deaths and couple of thousands of injured, because of gas emission from the steel plant.
Philip Saddler, young chemist at that time analyzed the blood of deceased ones and found a high concentration of fluorides in their blood. The analysis was published in Chemical and Engineering News. Uncovered memo from the Aluminum Company later confirmed the analysis of Phillip Saddler. Sodium fluoride is a highly toxic ingredient of rat poison. Main usage of fluoride is in atomic bomb production and aluminum production where sodium fluoride is a by-product. Sodium fluoride is also used in medical drug production.
Sodium fluoride can cause:

1. Lung empizema,
2. Bone cancer,
3. Breathing problems
4. Poisoning
5. Detention deficit disorder
6. Passivity
7. Liver damage
8. Muscle tension
9. and some other health problems
Studies made in Germany, British Columbia - Canada, New Zealand and Finland have shown that tooth decay has decreased in non fluoridated areas. The study made in U.S.A. on 39 207 children has shown reduced decay of deciduous teeth in 5-year old children in fluoridated areas. However, this isn't a case in the reduction of teeth decay in permanent teeth. In 1994 The Journal Fluoride, Volume 27, #1,13-22 shows a study made in New Zealand on 14-year old. Teeth decay correlated more with social-economic  status than with fluoridation.

The study made in India on 400.000 children hasn't shown any benefits of water fluoridation. 98% of European  countries don't use water fluoridation and those that do are considering to end it.

Dr. Phyllis Mullinex was hired by USA Army Medcom, while working at Harvard University Dental School found that rats fed with fluorides developed large numbers of neurological defects. She lost her job soon as she advised against water fluoridation.

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Lombroso's theory of crime

 Lombroso's theory of crime


Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), Italian psychiatrist and military medical doctor developed theories about the criminals. His theories are no longer valid today. Only credit which can be given to Lombroso is that he was the pioneer in inducement of scientific methods to criminology. Although anthropometric measurements were correct, the causal connection between human physical traits and criminality was deceptive. Sometimes scientists spend their whole career proving their hypotheses. Similar things happen in every area of human social activity. Development and understanding of scientific methods made possible to prove flaws of many studies in criminology and other sciences.

Classical criminology: Beccaria's views of crime

Lombroso developed the theory about "born criminal". In 3000 anthropometric measurements he found some biological traits of criminals.

Biological traits of born criminal are:

-    unusual size or shape of the head,

-    strange eyes,

-    facial asymmetry,

-    extended jaw and jaw bone,

-    too big or too small ears,

-    full lips leaned forward,

-    abnormal teeths,

-    wrinkled skin,

-    nose curled up; thief's have a flat nose and murderers have a beak nose,

-    too long, too small or flat chin,

-    dark skin and

-    too long arms.

According to Lombroso,  persons who have five or more biological traits are born criminals. Beside physical traits Lombroso introduces some other traits of born criminal:

1)    hypersensitivity on the  pain and touch,

2)    use of special criminal slang,

3)    grotesque expression of thoughts,

4)    tattoos and

5)    unemployment.

Lombroso later changes the theory of born criminal and develops a new theory. Classification of criminals is made into three categories:

1)    born criminals, (30% of all criminals)

2)    abnormal criminals (idiots, imbeciles, paranoids, melancholics, paralytics, epileptics, demented persons,  alcoholics and hysterics)

3)    occasional criminals

      a) criminaloids

      b) pseudo criminals

      c) criminals out of habit


Criminaloids had difficulties during their childhood and can occasionally behave delinquently. Pseudo criminals are insane persons and those who committed crime in self defense. Habitual criminals had a poor education during their childhood or have been in social interaction with criminals.

Further studies of Lombroso's thesis were made by Goring in 1913 and Hooton in 1939.

Goring contests Lombroso's thesis based on the experiment he made on 3000 criminals and non-criminals. Goring didn't find any physical abnormalities or traits on criminals. He criticized Lombroso on the issue of born criminal and found that such thesis is inaccurate as well as dangerous. Goring concluded that no one is criminal until he or she commits a crime.

Hooton confirms Lombroso's thesis based on the research he made on 14000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals from 10 Federal states of U.S.

Lombroso's theory was popular in his time, but it was later debunked. Some ideas fall out of favor in science as well as in politics with time. Lombroso's views on crime are still present today in the form of stereotypes on some minority groups. Furthermore, research conducted on police sub cultural behavior shows that police officers have similar stereotypes on particular racial groups.

Criminology theories of crime: Overview of criminology theoretical schools of thought 

 

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History of criminology: The brief overview of criminological thought

 History of criminology: The brief overview of criminological thought

criminal law and criminology development


In its beginnings, there was an attempt to develop valid and relevant theories of crime causation as well as to find answers how to control or prevent crime. Early theorists have only partially explored the issues concerning criminality. Crime on the theoretical level was an explored trough a personal perception and sometimes using empirical knowledge about crime.
Throughout history, two distinctive questions were the precursors for historical development of criminology. First question was: How to prevent and deal with crime? With  a development of organized society in early Babylonia, laws like Codex Hammurabi had regulated behaviors and proscribed appropriate punishments for such deviant behaviors. Codex Hammurabi has made differences between social classes of perpetrators in the appliance of punishments.

At that time, there were four types of punishments:
1. Exile
2. Death penalty
3. Compensation
4. Slavery

In medieval Europe at 13th century, the development of legal sciences has brought significant progress in phrasing legal norms. The development of criminal law began it diverse development around 1530s when some rulers of the European states began to issue own criminal codes ( Constitutio Criminalis Carolina (1532), Constitutio Criminalis Bambargensis (1509) and other criminal codes). The goal of these criminal codes was to reduce cases when local criminal codes haven't regulated some undesirable behaviors. The European Criminal  Law was mostly particular, while the universal codes of rulers have been the subsidiary and secondary source for application of law. Criminal law in general terms were at that time unified source where the norms have regulated description of crimes, determined sanctions for crimes and the Criminal Court procedures. Division of the criminal law in general terms began in 17th century. The word "constitutio" derives from Latin, and it means a rulers decision, proclamation or edict. The word "constitutio" today signifies the decision of executive branch, which by its legal power is equal to the laws, but limited on the time period of one year.
European Criminal Law has continued its development trough 17th and 18th century. The most known criminal codes of that time were: Constitution Criminalis Leopoldina, Constitutio Criminalis Josephina, Constitutio Criminalis Theresiana and Code de Napoleon which applied until 1992 in France.
Second question was: What is the cause of crime? The cause of crime is mostly explained religiously as an act of evil influence. With a development of philosophy, philosophers like Plato and Aristotle have seen possible explanations of crime in socio-economic status. The religious explanations of crime causality have remained the prevailing explanation of crime until 1700s. The emergence of classical criminology as a first school of modern criminology brought first serious attempts to philosophically and logically explain causes of crime. However, the philosophical explanations of crime causality were too general. At that time, the foundations have been placed for sociology to create specific theories. Positivist criminology has focused its research interest on the criminal in an attempt to measure criminality in some way, and that changed the views on the criminality in a way that no longer was relevant only to create theoretical models, but also to process data of scientific measurements. Although the lack of understanding of experimental variables and causality in the experiment, brought characters like Lombroso to insist on their thesis. It will take a lot of time for scientists to find flaws of their thesis and conclusions, but with development of experimental methodology chances to make mistakes  have been reduced significantly.

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Top Five Accredited Programs and Criminal Justice Online Degrees

Top Five Accredited Programs and Criminal Justice Online Degrees

accredited online criminal justice degree, affordable criminal justice degree online

Criminal Justice Online Degree Programs in America the lowest cost of distance learning

Bellow listed University programs are affordable from a perspective of income. In the recession, the value of degrees has significantly dropped. The degree doesn't necessary mean getting a job for sure. Those who express the wish to upgrade their academic knowledge, have a job and sustainable income will certainly be interested to explore and employ criminal justice knowledge in their branch as a way to sustain their job position.Worldwide employment trends show an increase of need for experts in medical, accounting and health care professions. Because the governments do not expand, have large deficits, have imposed the cuts and austerity measures, it is very unlikely that there will be a demand for specialists in criminal justice in the period of 10 years. However, the rapid development of new types of computer crimes will certainly require an attention of experienced criminologists and IT specialists as cyber detectives.

Criminology jobs are generally for those who have obtained bachelors, masters or PhD degrees in the area of criminology or criminal justice. Criminologists in general terms are an analysts, and criminological education usually attracts people who have well developed analytical, cognitive, logical, practical, systematical and creative skills. Sometimes criminology jobs require experts of different education profile and working background to work for law enforcement. Having a degree in criminology or criminal justice doesn't necessary mean that the person will work automatically in criminal justice system agencies. Although the education is specific, implementation of skills and knowledge's gained trough criminological education can be various, and criminology college freshman can find even better job opportunities in the private sector.

Top Five universities in America

Job opportunities for criminologists can be found in more than 10 job profession areas:

Private sector

1. Security agencies

2. Consulting companies (security consulting)

3. Insurance companies ( insurance swindle investigation)

4. Banks (surveillance systems, internal control unit)

5. Other organizations

Private sector employers usually hire experienced professional who have at least 3-7 years of working experience in criminal justice system. They rarely take trainees.

Government and local governments

1. Police agencies

2. Courts

3. Correctional institutions

4. Military

5. Other governments and local government organizations

#	Rating (1-5)	Cost	University, program	Location, Contact Info
1.	4	$ 7,000	Fort Hays State University, Master of Liberal Studies/Criminal Justice	Fort Hays State University Hays, Kansas 67601 (785) 628-5578 United States
2.	3	$ 10,000	American Public University, Master of Arts in Criminal Justice	Charles Town, West Virginia, 111 W Congress St,           304-728-8737
3.	3	$9,700	New Mexico State University, Master of Science Criminal Justice	Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003 800-821-1574 505-646-4692             United States
4.	3	$11,000	Troy University e-Campus, Master of Science in Criminal Justice	Alabama, 601 University Avenue, Troy,  334-670-0195 United States of America
5.	3 -	$11,000	University of Central Missouri, Master of Science	Missouri 306 Broad Street, Warrensburg, 660-543-4123 United States of America

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